Antimicrobial theta defensins and methods of using same

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to an isolated cyclic peptide, theta defensin, having antimicrobial activity, and to theta defensin analogs. A theta defensin can have the amino acid sequence Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa5, wherein Xaa1 to Xaa8 are defined; wherein Xaa1 can be linked through a peptide bond to Xaa8; and wherein crosslinks can be formed between Xaa3 and Xaa3, between Xaa5 and Xaa5, and between Xaa7 and Xaa7. For example, the invention provides a theta defensin having the amino acid sequence Gly-Phe-Cys-Arg-Cys-Leu-Cys-Arg-Arg-Gly-Val-Cys-Arg-Cys-Ile-Cys-Thr-Arg (SEQ ID NO:1), wherein the Gly at position 1 (Gly-1) is linked through a peptide bond to Arg-18, and wherein disulfide bonds are present between Cys-3 and Cys-16, between Cys-5 and Cys-14, and between Cys-7 and Cys-12. The invention also relates to antibodies that specifically bind a theta defensin and to isolated nucleic acid molecules encoding a theta defensin. In addition, the invention relates to methods of using theta defensin or a theta defensin analog to reduce or inhibit microbial growth or survival in an environment capable of sustaining microbial growth or survival by contacting the environment with the theta defensin.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/309,487,filed May 10, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,335,318.

This invention was made with government support under grant numberAI22931 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government hascertain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to antimicrobial agents and,more specifically, to cyclic theta defensin peptides and methods ofusing a theta defensin to reduce or inhibit microbial growth orsurvival.

2. Background Information

Infections by microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, area major cause of human morbidity and mortality. Although anyone can be avictim of such infection, the sick and elderly are particularlysusceptible. For example, hospitalized patients frequently acquiresecondary infections due to a combination of their weakened conditionand the prevalence of microorganisms in a hospital setting. Suchopportunistic infections result in increased suffering of the patient,increased length of hospitalization and, consequently, increased coststo the patient and the health care system. Similarly, the elderly,particularly those living in nursing homes or retirement communities,are susceptible to infections because of their close living arrangementand the impaired responsiveness of their immune systems.

Numerous drugs are available for treating infections by certainmicroorganisms. In particular, various bacterial infections have beenamenable to treatment by antibiotics. However, the prolonged use ofantibiotics since their discovery has resulted in the selection ofbacteria that are relatively resistant to these drugs. Furthermore, fewif any drugs are effective against microorganisms such as viruses. As aresult, continuing efforts are being made to identify new and effectiveagents for treating infections by a variety of microorganisms.

The identification of naturally occurring compounds that act asantimicrobial agents has provided novel and effective drugs. Manyorganisms protect themselves by producing natural products that aretoxic to other organisms. Frogs, for example, produce a class ofpeptides, magainins, which provide a defense mechanism for the frogagainst potential predators. Magainins have been purified and shown tohave antimicrobial activity, thus providing a natural product useful forreducing or inhibiting microbial infections.

Natural products useful as antimicrobial agents also have been purifiedfrom mammalian organisms, including humans. For example, the defensinsare a class of peptides that have been purified from mammalianneutrophils and demonstrated to have antimicrobial activity. Similarly,indolicidin is a peptide that has been isolated from bovine neutrophilsand has antimicrobial activity, including activity against viruses,bacteria, fungi and protozoan parasites. Thus, naturally occurringcompounds provide a source of drugs that are potentially useful fortreating microbial infections.

Upon identifying naturally occurring peptides useful as antimicrobialagents, efforts began to chemically modify the peptides to obtainanalogs having improved properties. Such efforts have resulted, forexample, in the identification of indolicidin analogs which, whenadministered to an individual, have increased selectivity against theinfecting microorganisms as compared to the individuals own cells. Thus,the availability of naturally occurring antimicrobial agents hasprovided new drugs for treating microbial infections and has provided astarting material to identify analogs of the naturally occurringmolecule that have desirable characteristics.

Although such natural products and their analogs have provided newagents for treating microbial infections, it is well known thatmicroorganisms can become resistant to drugs. Thus, a need exists toidentify agents that effectively reduce or inhibit the growth orsurvival of microorganisms. Th e present invention satisfies this needand provides additional advantages.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to an isolated cyclic theta defensinpeptide, which exhibits broad spectrum antimicrobial activity, and totheta defensin analogs. In general, a theta defensin or theta defensinanalog has the amino acid sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein Xaa1 independently is Gly, Ile, Leu, Val or Ala; Xaa2 is Phe,Trp or Tyr; Xaa3 is Cys or Trp; Xaa4 independently is Arg or Lys; Xaa5is Cys or Trp; Xaa6 is Cys or Trp; Xaa7 is Thr or Ser; and Xaa8 is Argor Lys. Xaa1 can be linked through a peptide bond to Xaa8. Furthermore,crosslinks can be formed between Xaa3 and Xaa3, between Xaa5 and Xaa5,and between Xaa7 and Xaa7. For example, the invention provides thetadefensin having the amino acid sequenceGly-Phe-Cys-Arg-Cys-Leu-Cys-Arg-Arg-Gly-Val-Cys-Arg-Cys-Ile-Cys-Thr-Arg(SEQ ID NO:1), wherein the Gly at position 1 (Gly-1) is linked through apeptide bond to Arg-18, and wherein disulfide bonds are present betweenCys-3 and Cys-16, Cys-5 and Cys-14, and Cys-7 and Cys-12.

The invention also relates to methods of using a theta defensin or ananalog thereof to reduce or inhibit microbial growth or survival in anenvironment capable of sustaining microbial growth or survival bycontacting the environment with theta defensin. As such, the inventionprovides methods of reducing or inhibiting microbial growth or survivalon a solid surface, for example, surgical instruments, hospitalsurfaces, and the like.

The invention further relates to methods for reducing or inhibitingmicrobial growth or survival in an individual, particularly a mammalsuch as a human. Thus, the invention provides methods of treating anindividual suffering from a pathology characterized, at least in part,by microbial infection, by administering theta defensin or an analogthereof to the individual, thereby reducing the severity of thepathologic condition.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B and 1C show purification of RTD-1. FIG. 1A shows reversephase HPLC (RP-HPLC) of peripheral blood leukocyte extracts. Anα-defensin-enriched extract of 6×10⁶ leukocytes (91% PMNs) wasfractionated by RP-HPLC on a 0.46×25 cm C-18 column equilibrated in 0.1%aqueous TFA and developed with a linear acetonitrile gradient (dottedline). RTD-1 eluted in the peak marked with an arrow. FIG. 1B showsanalytical RP-HPLC of purified RTD-1. The purity of RTD-1 was assessedby RP-HPLC of RTD-1 obtained from the peak marked by an arrow in FIG. 1Aon an analytical C-18 column developed with acetonitrile at 0.5% permin. FIG. 1C shows acid-urea polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE).Samples analyzed were 30% acetic acid extracts, 2×10⁶ cell equivalents,lane 1; methanol/water extracted phase, 1×10⁶ cell equivalents lane 2;and 1 μg of RTD-1, lane 3. Samples were resolved on a 12.5% acid-ureapolyacrylamide gel and stained with formalin-Coomassie blue.

FIGS. 2A and 2B show the peptide backbone structure of RTD-1. FIG. 2Ashows the amino acid sequence of the peptide chain, determined by Edmansequencing. The corresponding MALDI-TOF MS analysis of purifiedproteolytic fragments is also shown. Residues in parentheses wereassigned based on MALDI-TOF MS data. Calculated MALDI-TOF MS values arein parentheses. The peptides shown in FIG. 2A (top to bottom) correspondto SEQ ID NOS:2-9, respectively. FIG. 2B shows a schematic of RTD-1cyclized peptide backbone.

FIG. 3 shows disulfide analysis of RTD-1. A tridisulfide-containing17-residue oligopeptide generated by trypsin digestion was purified byRP-HPLC and further digested with thermolysin. MS analysis (calculatedvalues in parentheses) of the digest or of HPLC-purified fragmentsdisclosed thermolytic cleavage at Cys-14/Ile-15 and at Cys-5/Leu-6(arrows), producing four major thermolytic fragments (Th-1 to Th-4). Themasses of all fragments were consistent with the disulfide assignmentsshown.

FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C show the structure of RTD-1. FIG. 4A shows aschematic of the covalent structure of RTD-1 compared with that ofcirculin A, an antiviral peptide isolated from the plant Chassaliaparvifolia. FIG. 4B shows a theoretical model of RTD-1 obtained bymolecular dynamics and energy minimization in water. The model shows ahigh degree of structural similarity to porcine protegrin 1 (PG-1) forthose residues defined in the PG-1 solution structure. FIG. 4C shows thealignment of the PG-1 and RTD-1 sequences and disulfide motifs.

FIGS. 5A-5F show the coordinates used to generate the molecular modelshown in FIG. 4B.

FIGS. 6A, 6B and 6C show synthesis and characterization of RTD-1. FIG.6A shows the scheme for solid phase peptide synthesis and cyclizationentailed chain assembly, cleavage/deprotection, purification of thereduced linear chain, oxidation and cyclization. FIG. 6B showsco-elution of synthetic and natural RTD-1 on RP-HPLC and comigration onacid-urea PAGE (inset). FIG. 6C shows circular dichroic spectra ofsynthetic and natural RTD-1 determined in water, 10 mM sodium phosphatebuffer, and methanol at a peptide concentration of 111 μg/ml (53.3 μM).

FIG. 7 shows the zone of inhibition (mm inhibition) of growth ofStaphylococcus aureus 502A (closed circles), Escherichia coli ML35 (opencircles), Listeria monocytogenes EGD (open triangles), and Cryptococcusneoformans 271A (closed triangles) at various concentrations of thetadefensin.

FIG. 8 shows a comparison of staphylocidal activity of natural andsynthetic RTD-1. S. aureus 502a was incubated with increasingconcentrations of natural or synthetic theta defensin peptide. Killingwas quantified by colony counts.

FIGS. 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D and 9E show microbicidal activity of RTD-1. FIG. 9Ashows incubation of S. aureus 502a with increasing concentrations ofnatural or synthetic peptide. Killing was quantified by colony counts.FIGS. 9B-9D show incubation of the indicated organisms with RTD-1peptide: Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus (FIG. 9B);Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli (FIG. 9C); and Cryptococcusneoformans and Candida albicans (FIG. 9D). The limit of detection (1colony per plate) was equal to 1×10³ colony forming units in theincubation mixture. FIG. 9E shows killing of S. aureus 502a with naturalor synthetic RTD-1 supplemented with increasing concentrations of NaCl.

FIG. 10 shows microbicidal activity of acyclic RTD-1. S. aureus 502a wasincubated with increasing concentrations of acyclic RTD-1 with (solidcircles) or without (open circles) 130 mM NaCl. Killing activity wasquantified by colony counts after 18 hrs.

FIGS. 11A and 11B show the immunolocalization of RTD-1 in rhesus macaqueleukocytes. FIG. 11A shows cytospin preparations of peripheral bloodbuffy coat cells, fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, incubated withanti-RTD-1 antiserum. Antibody was visualized as a glucose oxidasecomplex with nitroblue tetrazolium. Cells were counterstained withNuclear Fast Red. FIG. 11B shows negative control incubation of buffycoat cells using anti-RTD-1 antiserum that was preabsorbed withsynthetic acyclic RTD-1.

FIGS. 12A and 12B show RTD1a and RTD1b cDNAs. FIG. 12A shows full lengthcDNA sequence of RTD1a (SEQ ID NO:13) with the deduced amino acidsequence (SEQ ID NO:14). FIG. 12B shows full length cDNA sequence ofRTD1b (SEQ ID NO:15) with the deduced amino acid sequence (SEQ IDNO:16). Underlined amino acids are found in RTD-1, and superscriptnumbers correspond to the residue numbering of RTD-1 shown in FIG. 2.The underlined sequences in FIG. 12A correspond to nucleotides 287 to313 (SEQ ID NO:17) and amino acids 65 to 73 (SEQ ID NO:18) of RTD1a. Theunderlined sequences in FIG. 12B correspond to nucleotides 282 to 308(SEQ ID NO:19) and amino acids 65 to 73 (SEQ ID NO:20) of RTD1b. ATG ofthe initiation methionines are in bold, as are the polyadenlation sitesat the 3′ ends of the sequences.

FIGS. 13A and 13B show the amino acid sequences of RTD1a, RTD1b, andhuman neutrophil defensin HNP-4. FIG. 13A shows covalent structures ofmature RTD-1 (SEQ ID NO:1) and HNP-4 (SEQ ID NO:12). FIG. 13B showsamino acid sequences of precursors of RTD1a (SEQ ID NO:21), RTD1b (SEQID NO:22) and HNP-4 (SEQ ID NO:23). Identical amino acids are indicatedwith a period. In-frame stops in the coding sequence are indicated as“{circumflex over ( )}”. Hyphens are inserted to maximize sequencealignments. Shading is used to demarcate signal, pro-segment, maturepeptide and untranslated regions.

FIGS. 14A and 14B show genomic sequences of RTD1a (FIG. 14A; SEQ IDNO:24) and RTD1b (FIG. 14B; SEQ ID NO:25). Exon sequences are inuppercase, intron sequences in lower case.

FIGS. 15A and 15B shows the DNA probes used for specific hybridizationof RTD1a (FIG. 15A; top stand, SEQ ID NO:26; bottom strand, SEQ IDNO:30) and RTD1b (FIG. 15B; top strand, SEQ ID NO:27; bottom strand, SEQID NO:31).

FIG. 16 shows human theta defensin cDNA. The nucleotide sequence (SEQ IDNO:28) and deduced amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:29) are shown.

FIGS. 17A, 17B and 17C show immunostaining of HL-60 cells transfectedwith pcDNA3.1 containing RTD1a and RTD1b cDNAs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides theta defensin peptides, or a functional fragmentthereof, having antimicrobial activity. The theta defensin peptides ofthe invention include theta defensin and theta defensin analogs, havingthe amino acid sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa5,wherein Xaa1 independently is an aliphatic amino acid; Xaa2 is andaromatic amino acid; Xaa3 is Cys or Trp; Xaa4 independently is Arg orLys; Xaa5 is Cys or Trp; Xaa6 is Cys or Trp; Xaa7 is Thr or Ser; andXaa8 is Arg or Lys. For example, Xaa1 can be an aliphatic amino acidsuch as Gly, Ile, Leu, Val or Ala and Xaa2 can be an aromatic amino acidsuch as Phe, Trp or Tyr. In general, a theta defensin is a cyclicpeptide, wherein Xaa1 is linked through a peptide bond to Xaa8, andcontains three intrachain crosslinks, which are formed between Xaa3 andXaa3, between Xaa5 and Xaa5, and between Xaa7 and Xaa7. However, asdisclosed herein, the invention also encompasses linear theta defensinprecursors as well as peptide portions of a theta defensin.

As used herein, the term “independently,” when used in reference to theselection of an amino acid at a position in the generic structure of atheta defensin, means that the selection of one amino acid at aposition, for example, Xaa1 at position 1 of the theta defensin sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa5,has no influence on the selection, for example, of Xaa1 at position 6 or10 or the like. For example, Xaa1 in can be Gly at position 1 and can beLeu at position 6.

A composition of the invention is exemplified by an isolated cyclictheta defensin, which lacks free amino and carboxyl termini and,therefore, is resistant to exopeptidases and is thus relatively stableto proteolytic degradation. The theta defensins of the invention exhibitbroad spectrum antimicrobial activity. The exemplified theta defensin isan 18 amino acid cyclic peptide having the amino acid sequenceGly-Phe-Cys-Arg-Cys-Leu-Cys-Arg-Arg-Gly-Val-Cys-Arg-Cys-Ile-Cys-Thr-Arg(SEQ ID NO:1), wherein the Gly at position 1 (Gly-1) is linked through apeptide bond to Arg-18, and wherein three intrachain crosslinks arepresent due to disulfide bonds between Cys-3 and Cys-16, between Cys-5and Cys-14, and between Cys-7 and Cys-12.

As used herein, the term “isolated,” when used in reference to thetadefensin, means that the peptide is relatively free of proteins, lipids,nucleic acids or other molecules it normally is associated with in acell. In general, an isolated theta defensin peptide constitutes atleast about 75% by weight of a sample containing the theta defensin, andusually constitutes about 90% of a sample, particularly about 95% of thesample or 99% or more. An isolated theta defensin can be obtained byisolation from a cell expressing the theta defensin (see Example I), canbe chemically synthesized (see Example II), or can be expressed from arecombinant nucleic acid molecule (see Example V). Following chemicalsynthesis or recombinant expression, the theta defensin precursorpeptide generally is linear and, therefore, can be further subjected toappropriate conditions for cyclizing the peptide and forming theintrachain crosslinks (see Example II).

The theta defensin peptide shown as SEQ ID NO:1 constitutes the firstmember of a new class of defensins and is the basis for constructingtheta defensin analogs as disclosed herein. Previously describeddefensins are cationic, arginine-rich peptides having 29 to 42 aminoacids and containing three disulfide bonds (see Lehrer et al., Cell64:229-230 (1991); Lehrer and Ganz, Current Opin. Immunol. 11:23-27(1999)). The β defensins, for example, contain 38 to 42 amino acids andhave a net charge of +4 to +10 (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,459,235, issued Oct.17, 1995, which is incorporated herein by reference). The disulfidebonds in β defensins are formed in a characteristic pattern between thefirst and fifth Cys residues, the second and fourth Cys residues, andthe third and sixth Cys residues. In addition, some β defensins containa pyroglutamate residue at the amino terminus (U.S. Pat. No. 5,459,235,supra, 1995).

Defensins and defensin-like peptides are endogenously expressed invarious organisms. In mammals, defensins generally are expressed inneutrophils, macrophages and intestinal cells (see Lehrer et al., supra,1991; Lehrer and Ganz, supra, 1999). Defensins can exhibit potentantimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of microorganisms,including gram negative and gram positive bacteria, fungi, protozoanssuch as Acanthamoeba and Giardia, enveloped viruses such as herpessimplex viruses and human immunodeficiency viruses, and helminths.Defensins also have other properties, including chemotactic activity forhuman monocytes and the ability to interfere with adrenocorticotropinbinding to its receptor (see Lehrer et al., supra, 1991).

A new class of defensins, termed theta defensins, is disclosed herein.Theta defensins have been classified as members of the defensin familyof peptides based on their cationicity, arginine-rich composition andthe presence of three intrapeptide disulfide bonds, as well as theirbroad spectrum antimicrobial activity. However, theta defensins aredistinguishable from previously described defensins in that thetadefensins are cyclic peptides, which lack a free amino or carboxylterminus, and are shorter than previously described defensins.

The theta defensins are exemplified by the peptide shown as SEQ ID NO:1,which contains 18 amino acids, wherein the amino terminus of the firstamino acid (Gly) is linked to the carboxyl terminus of the last aminoacid (Arg) through a peptide bond, and wherein disulfide bonds areformed between Cys-3 and Cys-16, Cys-5 and Cys-14, and Cys-7 and Cys-12.For convenience of discussion, reference to an amino acid position in atheta defensin, or an analog thereof, is made with respect to the aminoacid position in the linear form of theta defensin shown as SEQ ID NO:1or of the theta defensin sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa5.As such, the amino acids are referred to as positions 1 through 18,starting with the Gly residue in (position 1; SEQ ID NO:1) and endingwith Arg (position 18).

A theta defensin having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 can beobtained by purification of the native peptide from a natural source(see Example I). A theta defensin having the amino acid sequence of SEQID NO:1, or of the theta defensin sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa5,also can be chemically synthesized using routine methods of solid phasesynthesis (see Example II) or can be expressed from a recombinantnucleic acid molecule encoding the theta defensin (see Example V).

In general, a precursor theta defensin is obtained following chemicalsynthesis of the peptide, since the newly synthesized peptide is notcyclized and does not contain the appropriate intrachain crosslinking.Similarly, expression of a recombinant nucleic acid molecule encoding atheta defensin generally results in the production of a precursor thetadefensin peptide, unless the peptide is expressed in a cell that caneffect formation of the appropriate bonds. Accordingly, the term“precursor,” when used in reference to a theta defensin peptide, means aform of the peptide that lacks a peptide bond between the amino terminaland carboxyl terminal amino acids or lacks at least one of the threedisulfide bonds characteristic of a theta defensin. Such precursorpeptides can be converted into a mature cyclic theta defensincontaining, for example, one, two or three disulfide bonds by exposingthe precursor peptide to the appropriate conditions for effectingformation of the intrapeptide crosslinks, for example, the conditionsdisclosed in Example II. However, as disclosed herein, precursor thetadefensins also are contemplated within the present invention.

A theta defensin or theta defensin analog can be prepared by solid phasemethods (Example II). Theta defensin analogs, which are encompassedwithin SEQ ID NO:5, are synthesized based on SEQ ID NO:1, butsubstituting one or more amino acids of SEQ ID NO:1 as desired,particularly by incorporating conservative amino acid substitutions.Such conservative amino acid substitutions are well known and include,for example, the substitution of an amino acid having a smallhydrophobic side chain with another such amino acid (for example, Alafor Gly) or the substitution of one basic residue with another basicresidue (for example, Lys for Arg). Similar conservative amino acidsubstitutions in other antimicrobial peptides such as indolicidinresulted in the production of indolicidin analogs that maintained theirbroad spectrum antimicrobial activity (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,547,939,issued Aug. 20, 1996, which is incorporated herein by reference). Thus,a theta defensin analog having, for example, a substitution of Leu-6with a Val, Ile or Ala residue, or a substitution of Arg-8 or Arg-9 orArg-13 or Arg-18 with a Lys residue similarly can be expected tomaintain broad spectrum antimicrobial activity.

A theta defensin analog also can have substitutions of the cysteineresidues involved in a disulfide bond, with amino acids that can form anintrachain crosslink, for example, with tryptophan residues, which canform a di-tryptophan crosslink. Similarly to naturally occurringindolicidin, which is a linear antimicrobial peptide, indolicidinanalogs having an intrachain di-tryptophan crosslink also haveantimicrobial activity. Furthermore, substitution of the Trp residuesinvolved in the di-tryptophan crosslink in an indolicidin analog withCys residues results in an indolicidin analog that has an intrachaindisulfide crosslink and exhibits broad spectrum antimicrobial activity.By analogy to such indolicidin analogs, a theta defensin analog cancontain, in place of one or more of the characteristic disulfide bonds,one or more corresponding di-tryptophan, lactam or lanthioninecrosslinks. For example, a crosslink in a theta defensin analog can beformed, for example, between two Trp residues, which form adi-tryptophan crosslink. In addition, a crosslink can be a monosulfidebond formed by a lanthionine residue. A crosslink also can be formedbetween other amino acid side chains, for example, a lactam crosslinkformed by a transamidation reaction between the side chains of an acidicamino acid and a basic amino acid, such as between the γ-carboxyl groupof Glu (or β-carboxyl group of Asp) and the ε-amino group of Lys; or canbe a lactone produced, for example, by a crosslink between the hydroxygroup of Ser and the γ-carboxyl group of Glu (or β-carboxyl group ofAsp); or a covalent bond formed, for example, between two amino acids,one or both of which have a modified side chain.

The invention additionally provides a theta defensin peptide, or afunctional fragment thereof, having the amino acid sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa9-Xaa4-Xaa10-Xaa1-Xaa11-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa12-Xaa4-Xaa13-Xaa1-Xaa14-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein Xaa1 independently is an liphatic amino acid such as Gly, Ile,Leu, Val or Ala; Xaa2 is an aromatic amino acid such as Phe, Trp or Tyr;Xaa4 independently is Arg or Lys; Xaa7 is Thr or Ser; Xaa8 is Arg orLys; Xaa9 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa10 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa11is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa12 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa13 is Glu,Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa14 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser. In such a theta defensinpeptide, an intrachain crosslink can be formed between two amino acids,Xaa9 and Xaa14; Xaa10 and Xaa13; or Xaa11 and Xaa12, which correspond tothe same position as disulfide crosslinks in natural theta defensin. Theintrachain crosslink can be, for example, a lactam or lactone.

In theta defensin peptides having less than three crosslinks, as foundin native theta defensin, the amino acids at the positions correspondingto the native crosslinks, amino acids Xaa3, Xaa5 and Xaa6 in SEQ IDNO:1, can be modified. For example if positions Xaa3 are disulfidecrosslinked, the amino acids at position Xaa5 and Xaa6 can be noncysteine residues, for example, a hydrophobic amino acid such as Tyr,Val, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe or Trp; a small amino acid such as Gly, Ser,Ala, or Thr; or a large polar amino acid such as Asn or Gln.

If desired, a theta defensin analog of the invention can have one ormore amino acid deletions or additions as compared to SEQ ID NO:1,again, by analogy to indolicidin analogs, which can have a carboxylterminal amino acid deletion or as many as five amino terminal aminoacid deletions, yet still maintain broad spectrum antimicrobialactivity. Thus, it can be expected that theta defensin analogs havingone or a few deletions or additions at selected positions in the thetadefensin sequence also will maintain broad spectrum antimicrobialactivity and, as such, are considered functional fragments of a thetadefensin. As used herein, a “functional fragment” when used in referenceto a theta defensin is a portion of a theta defensin that still retainssome or all of the antimicrobial activity of a theta defensin. Theantimicrobial activity of a theta defensin analog, or a functionalfragment thereof, containing one or more amino acid substitutions,deletions or additions as compared to SEQ ID NO:1 can be confirmed usingassays as disclosed herein (Example III) or otherwise known in the art.

As used herein, the term “amino acid” is used in its broadest sense tomean the naturally occurring amino acids as well as non-naturallyoccurring amino acids, inc luding amino acid analogs. Thus, referenceherein to an amino acid includes, for example, naturally occurringproteogenic (L)-amino acids, as well as (D)-amino acids, chemicallymodified amino acids such as amino acid analogs, naturally occurri ngnon-proteogenic amino acids such as norleucine, and chemicallysynthesized compounds having properties known in the art to becharacteristic of an amino acid. As used herein, the term “proteogenic”indicates that the amino acid can be incorporated into a p rotein in acell through a metabolic pathway.

Theta defensin having the a mino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 waschemically synthesized as a linear precursor peptide using solid phaseFmoc chemistry (see Example II). The linear peptide was subjected toreducing conditions, then oxidized to allow formation of the disulfidebonds, and treated with ethylenediaminecarbodiimide to cyclize thepeptide. The synthesized cyclic theta defensin was characterized byreverse phase-high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC),MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and circular dichroism (CD) and comigratedwith native theta defensin by acid-urea PAGE (Example II). The syntheticcyclic theta defensin also demonstrated broad spectrum antimicrobialactivity (see Example III).

The invention additionally provides a method of preparing thetadefensin. The method of synthesis includes the steps of synthesizing alinear peptide of an amino acid sequence corresponding to the amino acidsequence of theta defensin, forming one or more crosslink bonds withinthe linear peptide, and cyclizing the peptide by linking the carboxyland amino termini to form a cyclic peptide. The crosslink formed can bea disulfide, lanthionine, lactam or lactone. The cysteine residues usedin the linear peptide can be in a pre-formed activated ester form. If adisulfide crosslink is formed between two cysteines, the crosslink canbe formed by oxidation. The formation of a peptide bond between theamino and carboxyl termini can be advantageously mediated by placing thecarboxyl terminus and amino terminus of the linear peptide eachapproximately the same number of amino acids from the nearest cysteine.

The cyclization step can be performed with ethylenediaminecarbodiimideand N-hydroxybenzotriazole, for example, 60 equivalents and 20equivalents, respectively, in a solvent. The synthesis can be performedin dimethylsulfoxide as the solvent.

Cyclized versions of the theta defensin peptides of the invention areresistant to exo-peptidases such as aminopeptidases andcarboxypeptidases because there is no amino or carboxyl terminus toserve as a substrate for the exo-peptidases. The invention furtherprovides a method of enhancing protease resistance of a peptide bysynthesizing a peptide, wherein the amino-terminal amino acid andcarboxyl-terminal amino acid of the peptide are positioned by intrachaincrosslinks and whereby a peptide bond is formed between theamino-terminal and carboxyl-terminal amino acids.

An advantage of using chemical synthesis to prepare a theta defensin isthat (D)-amino acids can be substituted for (L)-amino acids, if desired.The incorporation of one or more (D)-amino acids into a theta defensinanalog can confer, for example, additional stability of the peptide invitro or, particularly, in vivo, since endogenous endoproteasesgenerally are ineffective against peptides containing (D)-amino acids.Naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides that have been chemicallysynthesized to contain (D)-amino acids maintain their antimicrobialactivity (Wade et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:4761-4765 (1990),which is incorporated herein by reference).

If desired, the reactive side group of one or more amino acids in atheta defensin can be modified or amino acid derivatives can beincorporated into the peptide (see, for example, Protein Engineering: Apractical approach (IRL Press 1992); Bodanszky, Principles of PeptideSynthesis (Springer-Verlag 1984), each of which is incorporated hereinby reference). Selective modification of a reactive group, other thanthose involved in formation of the three intrachain crosslinkscharacteristic of a defensin, can impart desirable characteristics upona theta defensin analog, although modifications that allow the formationof intrachain crosslinks at the appropriate positions also an beeffected. The choice of including such a modification is determined, inpart, by the characteristics required of the peptide. Such modificationscan result, for example, in theta defensin analogs having greaterantimicrobial selectivity or potency than naturally occurring thetadefensin (SEQ ID NO:1).

The theta defensins of the invention are polypeptides havingantimicrobial activity. As used herein, the term “polypeptide” when usedin reference to a theta defensin is intended to refer to a peptide orpolypeptide of two or more amino acids. The term is similarly intendedto refer to derivatives, analogues and functional mimetics thereof. Forexample, derivatives can include chemical modifications of thepolypeptide such as alkylation, acylation, carbamylation, iodination, orany modification which derivatives the polypeptide. Analogues caninclude modified amino acids, for example, hydroxyproline orcarboxyglutamate, and can include amino acids that are not linked bypeptide bonds. Mimetics encompass chemicals containing chemical moietiesthat mimic the function of the polypeptide. For example, if apolypeptide contains two charged chemical moieties having functionalactivity, a mimetic places two charged chemical moieties in a spatialorientation and constrained structure so that the charged chemicalfunction is maintained in three-dimensional space. Thus, a mimetic,which orients functional groups that provide the antimicrobial functionof a theta defensin, are included within the meaning of a theta defensinderivative. All of these modifications are included within the term“polypeptide” so long as the polypeptide retains its antimicrobialfunction.

A theta defensin can incorporate polypeptide derivatives. Peptidederivatives are well known in the art (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No.5,804,558, issued Sep. 8, 1998). For example, certain commonlyencountered amino acids, which are not encoded by the genetic code,include, for example, beta-alanine (beta-Ala), or other omega-aminoacids, such as 3-aminopropionic, 2,3-diaminopropionic (2,3-diaP),4-aminobutyric and so forth, alpha-aminisobutyric acid (Aib), sarcosine(Sar), ornithine (Orn), citrulline (Cit), t-butylalanine (t-BuA),t-butylglycine (t-BuG), N-methylisoleucine (N-MeIle), phenylglycine(Phg), and cyclohexylalanine (Cha), norleucine (Nle), 2-naphthylalanine(2-Nal); 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid (Tic);β-2-thienylalanine (Thi); methionine sulfoxide (MSO); and homoarginine(Har).

In peptides of the invention, one or more amide linkages (—CO—NH—) canbe replaced with another linkage which is an isostere such as —CH₂NH—,—CH₂S—, —CH₂CH₂, —CH══CH— (cis and trans), —COCH₂—, —CH(OH)CH₂— and—CH₂SO—. This replacement can be made by methods known in the art (see,for example, Spatola, Vega Data Vol. 1, Issue 3, (1983); Spatola, inChemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids Peptides and Proteins,Weinstein, ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 267 (1983); Morley, J. S.,Trends Pharm. Sci. pp. 463-468 (1980); Hudson et al., Int. J. Pept.Prot. Res. 14:177-185 (1979); Spatola et al., Life Sci. 38:1243-1249(1986); Hann, J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. I 307-314 (1982); Almquist etal., J. Med. Chem. 23:1392-1398 (1980); Jennings-White et al.,Tetrahedron Lett. 23:2533 (1982); Szelke et al., EP 45665 (1982);Holladay et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 24:4401-4404 (1983); and Hruby, LifeSci. 31:189-199 (1982)).

In addition to polypeptide derivatives of a theta defensin, theinvention additionally provides a chemical mimetic of a theta defensinpeptide. As described above, mimetics contain chemical functional groupsthat mimic the function of a theta defensin. Such a mimetic chemical canorient functional groups on a theta defensin peptide sufficient forantimicrobial activity. A mimetic places the functional chemicalmoieties in a spatial orientation and constrained structure so that thechemical function is maintained in three-dimensional space. Thus, amimetic orients chemical functional groups that provide the thetadefensin function of antimicrobial activity in an orientation thatmimics the structure of a theta defensin.

As disclosed herein, a molecular model of a theta defensin has beendetermined (Example III). Using the molecular model of theta defensin,one skilled in the art can identify a chemical such as a peptidomimetic.As used herein, the term “peptidomimetic” is used broadly to mean apeptide-like molecule that has a similar structure and activity as atheta defensin. With respect to the theta defensin peptides of theinvention, peptidomimetics, which include chemically modified peptides,peptide-like molecules containing non-naturally occurring amino acids,peptoids and the like, have the antimicrobial activity upon which thepeptidomimetic is derived (see, for example, “Burger's MedicinalChemistry and Drug Discovery” 5th ed., vols. 1 to 3 (ed. M. E. Wolff;Wiley Interscience 1995)). Peptidomimetics provide various advantagesover a peptide, including that a peptidomimetic can be more stableduring passage through the digestive tract and, therefore, useful fororal administration.

Methods for identifying a peptidomimetic are well known in the art andinclude, for example, the screening of databases that contain librariesof potential peptidomimetics. For example, the Cambridge StructuralDatabase contains a collection of greater than 300,000 compounds thathave known crystal structures (Allen et al., Acta Crystallogr. SectionB, 35:2331 (1979)). This structural depository is continually updated asnew crystal structures are determined and can be screened for compoundshaving suitable shapes, for example, the same shape as a theta defensinpeptide. Another database, the Available Chemicals Directory (MolecularDesign Limited, Information Systems; San Leandro Calif.), contains about100,000 compounds that are commercially available and also can besearched to identify potential peptidomimetics of a theta defensinpeptide.

As used herein, the term “antimicrobial selectivity” refers to therelative amount of antimicrobial activity of theta defensin, or a thetadefensin analog, against a microorganism as compared to its activityagainst the environment to which it is administered, particularly itsactivity against normal cells in a treated individual. For example, atheta defensin analog that is characterized by having antimicrobialactivity that is equivalent to native theta defensin, but havingdecreased hemolytic activity as compared to native theta defensin, isconsidered to have greater antimicrobial selectivity than native thetadefensin.

As disclosed herein, theta defensin (SEQ ID NO:1) and analogs thereofhave broad spectrum antimicrobial activity (see Example III). As usedherein, the term “broad spectrum,” when used in reference to theantimicrobial activity of theta defensin or an analog thereof, refers tothe ability of the peptide to reduce or inhibit the survival orproliferative ability of various viruses, prokaryotic and eukaryoticmicroorganisms. For example, theta defensin (SEQ ID NO:1) and analogsthereof can exhibit antimicrobial activity against protozoans such asGiardia lamblia, Chlamydia sp. and Acanthamoeba sp.; viruses,particularly enveloped viruses such as herpes simplex virus and HIV-1;fungi such as Cryptococcus and Candida; various genera of gram negativeand gram positive bacteria, including Escherichia, Salmonella andStaphylococcus and Listeria; and parasitic helminths such as liverflukes. Antimicrobial activity can occur through “microbicidalinhibition,” which refers to the ability of a theta defensin to reduceor inhibit the survival of a microorganism by killing or irreversiblydamaging it, or through “microbistatic inhibition,” which refers to theability of the theta defensin to reduce or inhibit the growth orproliferative ability of a target microorganism without necessarilykilling it.

A precursor theta defensin or theta defensin analog can be expressedfrom a recombinant nucleic acid molecule encoding the peptide. Thus, theinvention also provides isolated nucleic acid molecules encoding a thetadefensin or theta defensin analog having the sequenceXaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa5.For example, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid moleculeencoding the linear form of SEQ ID NO:1, which is a precursor of thecyclic theta defensin peptide.

As used herein, the term “isolated,” when used in reference to a nucleicacid molecule, means the nucleic acid molecule is relatively free ofproteins, lipids, nucleic acids or other molecules it normally isassociated with in a cell. In general, an isolated nucleic acid moleculeencoding a theta defensin constitutes at least about 75% by weight of asample containing the nucleic acid molecule, and usually constitutesabout 90% of a sample, particularly about 95% of the sample or more. Itis recognized, however, that an isolated nucleic acid molecule encodinga theta defensin can be contained in a vector. For purposes of thepresent definition of “isolated,” vector DNA is not considered to bepart of a sample when determining the degree of isolation of the nucleicacid molecule encoding the theta defensin, since the encoding nucleicacid molecule generally can be readily purified from the vector. Anisolated nucleic acid molecule encoding a theta defensin can bechemically synthesized or can be cloned from a cell that contains atheta defensin gene or encodes a theta defensin mRNA, which can beconverted to a cDNA.

An isolated nucleic acid molecule of the invention, which encodes aprecursor theta defensin, can be prepared by chemical synthesis, basedon the disclosed theta defensin amino acid sequence and knowledge in theart of codons encoding each amino acid. Thus, a nucleic acid moleculeencoding SEQ ID NO:1, for example, can be synthesized by the steps of 1)selecting one of the four codons for Gly, 2) linking to the Gly encodingtriplet one of the two codons for Phe, 3) linking to the Gly-Pheencoding hexamer one of the two codons for Cys, and so forth until acomplete coding sequence has been synthesized. Since a nucleic acidsequence encoding SEQ ID NO:1 only is about 54 nucleotides in length (60nucleotides if an initiator methionine and a STOP codon are included),synthesis of the sequence readily can be prepared using routine methodsand, if desired, can be purchased from a commercial source. Similarly,nucleic acid molecules encoding theta defensin analogs can besynthesized based on the amino acid sequence of the analog.

Theta defensin cDNA was cloned from rhesus macaque bone marrow mRNAusing 3′ RACE with degenerate primers (see Example V). RTD1 is encodedby two similar cDNAs, termed RTD1a (SEQ ID NO:13) and RTD1b (SEQ IDNO:15), each of which contains 9 of the 18 amino acid residues in themature RTD-1 peptide (see Example V and FIG. 12). The cDNAs encodeseparate peptides, which become cyclized by formation of peptide bondsthat join the two peptides. The use of two genes to encode separateprepropeptides that are processed to form a cyclized peptide has notbeen previously described.

The invention additionally provides a nucleic acid molecule encoding thegenomic DNA for rhesus macaque theta defensin RTD1a (SEQ ID NO:24) andRTD1b (SEQ ID NO:25) (see Example V and FIG. 14). The invention furtherprovides a nucleic acid molecule encoding a human theta defensin (SEQ IDNO:28), which corresponds to a human theta defensin cDNA (FIG. 16). Thehuman theta defensin peptide region corresponds to amino acid residues65 to 73 in the precursor (amino acids RCICTRGFC; SEQ ID NO:18). Inaddition, the invention provides highly specific probes for RTD1a (SEQID NO:26) and RTD1b (SEQ ID NO:27).

Additional nucleic acid molecules encoding theta defensin can also becloned from other mammalian cells. For example, degenerateoligonucleotide probes can be prepared based on the amino acid sequenceof theta defensin (SEQ ID NO:1) and used to screen a cDNA or genomic DNAlibrary to obtain cloned nucleic acid molecules encoding the thetadefensin, as described in Example V. The peptide of SEQ ID NO:1originally was isolated from leukocytes of Rhesus macaques. Thus, a DNAlibrary prepared from leukocytes from other organisms can be screened toidentify and clone a nucleic acid molecule encoding the theta defensin.Previously described defensins from various species share substantialamino acid sequence homology (see Lehrer et al., supra, 1991), and thetadefensins also are likely to be relatively highly conserved. Asdisclosed herein, theta defensins of rhesus macaque and human are verysimilar (see Example V). Accordingly, a DNA library, which can be agenomic library or a cDNA library, prepared from cells of any mammal,for example, from leukocytes, can be screened using degenerateoligonucleotide probes to obtain a nucleic acid molecule encoding atheta defensin.

The skilled artisan will recognize that, in order to effectively screena DNA library using oligonucleotide probes based on SEQ ID NO:1, theoligonucleotides should reflect a relatively conserved portion of theencoded peptide and should comprise the least degenerate codons. Thus,for screening a human nucleic acid library, for example, the artisanwill recognize that oligonucleotide probes preferably are prepared basedon a region of the monkey theta defensin sequence that likely isconserved among species, for example, a probe based on Arg-4 to Arg-9 orArg-4 to Cys-12 of SEQ ID NO:1 (numbering according to FIG. 4A).Hybridization conditions such as those described, for example, inExample V can be used to obtain nucleic acid molecules encoding thetadefensins from other species.

Oligonucleotide probes can be used to screen a DNA library usinghybridization methods, including the polymerase chain reaction.Hybridization conditions are selected based, for example, on the lengthand nucleotide composition of the probes (or PCR primers) and can bedetermined empirically or estimated using formulas for calculating suchconditions (see, for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: Alaboratory manual (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press 1989), which isincorporated herein by reference; see chapter 11). Thus, the inventionfurther provides oligonucleotide sequences comprising a portion of thecoding sequence of a theta defensin, particularly of SEQ ID NO:1.

A nucleic acid molecule encoding a precursor theta defensin or analogthereof can be cloned into an appropriate vector, particularly anexpression vector, and the encoded peptide can be expressed in a hostcell or using an in vitro transcription/translation reaction, therebyproviding a means to obtain large amounts of the theta defensin. Thus,the invention provides vectors containing a nucleic acid moleculeencoding a theta defensin precursor, as well as host cells that canmaintain the vectors and, if desired, allow expression of the thetadefensin encoded by the nucleic acid molecule contained in the vector.Vector and host cell systems are well known in the art and commerciallyavailable.

The invention also provides antibodies that specifically bind a thetadefensin. As used herein, the term “antibody” is used in its broadestsense to include polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, as well asantigen binding fragments of such antibodies. With regard to ananti-theta defensin antibody of the invention, the term “antigen” meansa native or synthesized theta defensin, including a peptide portion ofthe theta defensin, that can, but need not, be cyclized or containintrachain crosslinks. An anti-theta defensin antibody, or antigenbinding fragment of such an antibody, is characterized by havingspecific binding activity for a theta defensin or a peptide portionthereof of at least about 1×10⁵ M⁻¹. Thus, Fab, F(ab′)₂, Fd and Fvfragments of an anti-theta defensin antibody, which retain specificbinding activity for a theta defensin, are included within thedefinition of an antibody.

In addition, the term “antibody” as used herein includes naturallyoccurring antibodies as well as non-naturally occurring antibodies,including, for example, single chain antibodies, chimeric, bifunctionaland humanized antibodies, as well as antigen-binding fragments thereof.Such non-naturally occurring antibodies can be constructed using solidphase peptide synthesis, can be produced recombinantly or can beobtained, for example, by screening combinatorial libraries consistingof variable heavy chains and variable light chains as described by Huseet al., Science 246:1275-1281 (1989), which is incorporated herein byreference. These and other methods of making, for example, chimeric,humanized, CDR-grafted, single chain, and bifunctional antibodies arewell known to those skilled in the art (Winter and Harris, Immunol.Today 14:243-246 (1993); Ward et al., Nature 341:544-546 (1989); Harlowand Lane, Antibodies: A laboratory manual (Cold Spring Harbor LaboratoryPress, 1988); Hilyard et al., Protein Engineering: A practical approach(IRL Press 1992); Borrabeck, Antibody Engineering, 2d ed. (OxfordUniversity Press 1995); each of which is incorporated herein byreference).

Anti-theta defensin antibodies specific for theta defensin have beengenerated by conjugating acyclic theta defensin, which was oxidized butnot cyclized, to ovalbumin (see Example IV). Additional anti-thetadefensin antibodies can be raised using a theta defensin immunogen suchas an isolated theta defensin having the amino acid sequence of SEQ IDNO:1, which can be prepared from natural sources or producedrecombinantly, or a peptide portion of the theta defensin. Anon-immunogenic theta defensin peptide or portion thereof can be madeimmunogenic by coupling the hapten to a carrier molecule such bovineserum albumin (BSA) or keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), or by expressingthe peptide portion as a fusion protein. Various other carrier moleculesand methods for coupling a hapten to a carrier molecule are well knownin the art and described, for example, by Harlow and Lane (supra, 1988).

An anti-theta defensin antibody is useful, for example, for determiningthe presence or level of a theta defensin in a tissue sample, which canbe a lysate or a histological section, or for cloning a nucleic acidmolecule encoding a theta defensin from an appropriate expressionlibrary. An anti-theta defensin antibody also can be used tosubstantially purify theta defensin from a sample, for example,following expression of the theta defensin from a recombinant nucleicacid molecule. In addition, an anti-theta defensin antibody raisedagainst a linear form of the theta defensin or against a peptide portionof the theta defensin can be used to screen an expression library, forexample, a lambda gt11 library, to identify a clone containing a cDNAencoding the theta defensin.

A theta defensin peptide or an anti-theta defensin antibody can belabeled so as to be detectable using methods well known in the art(Hermanson, “Bioconjugate Techniques” (Academic Press 1996), which isincorporated herein by reference; Harlow and Lane, 1988; chap. 9). Forexample, the peptide or antibody can be labeled with various detectablemoieties including a radiolabel, an enzyme, biotin or a fluorochrome.Reagents for labeling a peptide or antibody can be included in a kitcontaining the peptide or antibody or can be purchased separately from acommercial source. Thus, the invention further provides a kit, whichcontains a theta defensin or an anti-theta defensin antibody or both.Such a kit also can contain a reaction cocktail that provides the properconditions for performing an assay, for example, an ELISA or otherimmunoassay for determining the level of expression of a theta defensinin a sample, and can contain control samples that contain known amountsof a theta defensin and, if desired, a second antibody specific for theanti-theta defensin antibody. Where the kit is to be used for animmunoassay, it can include a simple method for detecting the presenceor amount of a theta defensin in a sample that is bound to the antibody.

Methods for raising polyclonal antibodies, for example, in a rabbit,goat, mouse or other mammal, are well known in the art. In addition,monoclonal antibodies can be obtained using methods that are well knownand routine in the art (Harlow and Lane, supra, 1988). Essentially,spleen cells from a mouse immunized, for example, with theta defensinhaving the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 can be fused to anappropriate myeloma cell line such as SP/02 myeloma cells to producehybridoma cells. Cloned hybridoma cell lines can be screened usinglabeled theta defensin to identify clones that secrete anti-thetadefensin monoclonal antibodies. Hybridomas expressing anti-thetadefensin monoclonal antibodies having a desirable specificity andaffinity can be isolated and utilized as a continuous source of theantibodies, which are useful, for example, for preparing standardizedkits as described above. Similarly, a recombinant phage that expresses,for example, a single chain anti-theta defensin antibody also provides amonoclonal antibody that can used for preparing standardized kits.

A theta defensin or analog thereof having antimicrobial activity can beapplied to an environment capable of sustaining the survival or growthof a microorganism or to an environment at risk of supporting suchsurvival or growth, thus providing a means for reducing or inhibitingmicrobial growth or survival. Accordingly, the invention relates tomethods of using a theta defensin or a theta defensin analog to reduceor inhibit microbial growth by contacting an environment capable ofsustaining microbial growth or survival with the antimicrobial peptide.

As used herein, reference to “an environment capable of sustainingsurvival or growth of a microorganism” means a gaseous, liquid or solidmaterial, including a living organism, in or upon which a microorganismcan live or propagate. In view of the broad range of environments thatallow the survival or growth of microorganisms as diverse, for example,as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans and helminths, and further inview of the disclosed effectiveness of a theta defensin against a broadspectrum of such microorganisms, the range of such environments that canbe treated using a method of the invention necessarily is broad andincludes, for example, a tissue or bodily fluid of an organism such as ahuman; a liquid such as water or an aqueous solution such as contactlens solution or eyewash solution; a food such as a food crop, a foodproduct or a food extract; and an object such as the surface of aninstrument used, for example, to prepare food or to perform surgery; anda gas such as that used for anesthetization in preparation for surgery.

A method of the invention encompasses administering to the environmentan effective amount of a theta defensin or analog thereof such that theantimicrobial peptide can contact a microorganism in the environment,thereby reducing or inhibiting the ability of the microorganism to growor survive. A theta defensin can be used in a variety of procedures forreducing or inhibiting the survival or growth of microorganisms,including the microbicidal inhibition of survival of a microorganism aswell as the microbistatic inhibition of growth. As such, a thetadefensin can be used, for example, as a therapeutic agent, a foodpreservative, a disinfectant or a medicament.

A cyclic theta defensin can be particularly useful as a therapeuticagent for treating a patient suffering from a bacterial, viral, fungalor other infection due to a microorganism susceptible to theantimicrobial activity of the theta defensin, since a cyclic thetadefensin is particularly resistant to the activity of endogenousproteases and peptidases. The resistance of a theta defensin or analogthereof is due, in part, to the cyclization of the peptide, such that itlacks a free amino terminus and a free carboxyl terminus. Thus, theinvention provides methods of treating an individual suffering from apathology caused, at least in part, by microbial infection, byadministering a theta defensin to the individual under conditions thatallow the theta defensin to contact the infecting microorganisms,thereby reducing or inhibiting the survival or growth of themicroorganism and alleviating the severity of the infection.

For use as a therapeutic agent, the theta defensin can be formulatedwith a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to produce a pharmaceuticalcomposition, which can be administered to the individual, which can be ahuman or other mammal. A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can be, forexample, water, sodium phosphate buffer, phosphate buffered saline,normal saline or Ringer's solution or other physiologically bufferedsaline, or other solvent or vehicle such as a glycol, glycerol, an oilsuch as olive oil or an injectable organic ester.

A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier can contain physiologicallyacceptable compounds that act, for example, to stabilize or increase theabsorption of the theta defensin. Such physiologically acceptablecompounds include, for example, carbohydrates such as glucose, sucroseor dextrans; antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or glutathione;chelating agents such as EDTA, which disrupts microbial membranes;divalent metal ions such as calcium or magnesium; low molecular weightproteins; or other stabilizers or excipients. One skilled in the artwould know that the choice of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier,including a physiologically acceptable compound, depends, for example,on the route of administration of the composition.

A pharmaceutical composition containing a theta defensin can beadministered to an individual by various routes, including byintravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intrathecal or intraperitonealinjection; orally, as an aerosol spray; or by intubation. If desired,the theta defensin can be incorporated into a liposome, a non-liposomelipid complex, or other polymer matrix, which further can haveincorporated therein, for example, a second drug useful for treating theindividual. Use, for example, of an antimicrobial indolicidin peptideincorporated into liposomes has been demonstrated to have antifungalactivity in vivo (Ahmad et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1237:109-114(1995), which is incorporated herein by reference). Liposomes, whichconsist of phospholipids or other lipids, are nontoxic, physiologicallyacceptable and metabolizable carriers that are relatively simple to makeand administer (Gregoriadis, Liposome Technology, Vol. 1 (CRC Press,Boca Raton Fla., 1984), which is incorporated herein by reference). Theskilled artisan will select a particular route and method ofadministration based, for example, on the location of a microorganism ina subject, the particular characteristics of the microorganism, and thespecific theta defensin or theta defensin analog that is administered.

Food and food products also can be treated with a theta defensin for thepurpose of preserving the food or eliminating or preventing infection bymicroorganisms. For example, shellfish and poultry products routinelyharbor enteric pathogenic microorganisms. The growth or survival of suchmicroorganisms can be reduced or inhibited by contacting the productwith the theta defensin. Food crops such as fruits, vegetables andgrains can be treated with a theta defensin in order to reduce orinhibit post-harvest spoilage caused by microorganisms, for example, byadministering the analog topically using an aerosolized form of theanalog. In addition, transgenic plants or animals useful in the foodindustry can be produced by introducing a nucleic acid molecule encodinga precursor of a theta defensin into the germline cells of suchorganisms. Methods for producing transgenic plants and animals are wellknown and routine in the art. Stable transgenic expression as well astransient transgene expression can be used (see, for example, theGENEWARE system; Biosource Technologies; Vacaville Calif.).

A theta defensin also can be used as a disinfectant to reduce or inhibitthe survival or growth of microorganisms on an object or in a solution.A theta defensin can be used to treat essentially any object or solutionthat can sustain microbial growth, where the survival or growth of themicroorganisms is undesirable. In particular, an object or solution thatcomes into contact with a mammal such as a human, for example, babywipes, diapers, band-aids, towelettes, make-up products and eyewash andcontact lens solutions can be treated with a theta defensin or analogthereof. In such methods, the theta defensin can be applied topically tothe object or can be added to the solution or can be in an aerosolizedform in a gas.

In order to exhibit antimicrobial activity in an environment, aneffective amount of a theta defensin is administered to the environment.As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to the amount of atheta defensin that reduces or inhibits the survival or growth of amicroorganism in an environment. In particular, an effective amount of atheta defensin produces only minimal effects against the environment,although the level of an acceptable deleterious effect is weighedagainst the benefit caused by the antimicrobial effect.

A theta defensin or analog thereof can be administered to a subject suchas a human systemically at a dose ranging from 1 to 100 mg/kg bodyweight, for example, at a dose of about 10 to 80 mg/kg, particularlyabout 10 to 50 mg/kg. A theta defensin also can be incorporated intoliposomes, if desired, in which case the total amount administered to asubject generally can be reduced. Furthermore, a theta defensin can beadministered orally to a subject at a dose ranging from about 1 to 100mg/kg body weight, for example at a dose of about 10 to 200 mg/kg, inparticular about 20 to 100 mg/kg. In addition, a theta defensin can beadministered topically to an environment, which can be a human subject,or can be placed in a solution, at a concentration of about 0.1 to 10mg/ml, for example, at a concentration of about 0.5 to 5 mg/ml. Althoughtheta defensins generally are effective in microgram per ml amounts, aneffective amount for administration to a particular environment willdepend, in part, on the environment. For example, when administered to amammal such as a human, a theta defensin, in addition to havingantimicrobial activity, can have an undesirable side effect. The skilledartisan will recognize that the level of such side effects must beconsidered in prescribing a treatment and must be monitored during thetreatment period, and will adjust the amount of the theta defensin thatis administered accordingly.

An effective amount of a theta defensin also will vary depending, forexample, on the characteristics of the target microorganism, the extentof prior infection or growth and the specific theta defensin or analogthereof that is administered. In addition, an effective amount dependson the form in which the theta defensin is administered. For example,incorporation of another antimicrobial peptide, indolicidin, intoliposomes allowed administration of a higher amount of the peptide than“free” indolicidin, without producing unacceptable side effects, suchthat fungal infection in mice could be cured (Ahmad et al., supra,1995).

The invention additionally provides a method of reducing or inhibitinggrowth or survival of a microorganism in an individual by administeringa molecule, wherein the molecule increases expression of a thetadefensin. Theta defensins are polypeptides expressed in leukocytes ofmammals, in particular primates, including humans. Thus, theta defensinsfunction as part of the endogenous defense system for a mammal to combatmicrobial infections. Since theta defensins are expressed in mammals,methods to increase expression of theta defensin in the organism can beused to reduce or inhibit microbial growth in the organism. Using thegenomic clones described herein, one skilled in the art can readilydetermine regulatory molecules that can alter transcription of a thetadefensin gene and screen for those molecules that effect an increase intheta defensin expression. Cytokines, for example, monocytechemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), interleukin 8 (IL8) or othercytokines, that activate granulocytes can be tested for stimulatoryactivity of theta defensin expression. Cytokines, or other compounds,can be screened for stimulatory activity. Compounds having stimulatoryactivity can be used to increase expression of a theta defensin in anorganism to reduce or inhibit growth or survival of a microorganism inan individual.

The following examples are intended to illustrate but not limit thepresent invention.

EXAMPLE I Preparation and Characterization of Theta Defensin

This example provides methods for purifying and characterizing a cyclictheta defensin.

Native theta defensin was purified from Rhesus macaque peripheralleukocytes. Briefly, leukocytes were obtained from anticoagulated wholeblood of adult rhesus macaques after erythrocytes were depleted bydextran sedimentation. The cell pellet (6×10⁶ cells; 91% neutrophils, 5%mononuclear cells, 4% eosinophils) was snap frozen, suspended in 0.5 mlice cold 30% acetic acid and stirred on melting ice for 18 h. Thesuspension was clarified by centrifugation at 4° C., the supernatant waslyophilized, and then dissolved in 0.5 ml methanol-water (80:20). After6-8 h of stirring at 8° C., the sample was clarified by centrifugationand the supernatant was lyophilized. The dry powder was dissolved in 0.5ml 5% acetic acid prior to RP-HPLC.

Rhesus theta defensin-1 (RTD-1) was isolated during studies tocharacterize defensins of rhesus macaque neutrophils. Peripheral bloodneutrophils (>90% PMN) were subjected to sequential acetic acid andwater/methanol extraction steps as described above, and the extract wasfractionated by reversed phase HPLC (FIG. 1A). An α-defensin-enrichedextract of 6×10⁶ leukocytes (91% PMNs) was fractionated by RP-HPLC on a0.46×25 cm C-18 column equilibrated in 0.1% aqueous trifluoroacetic acid(TFA) and developed with a linear acetonitrile gradient. RTD-1 eluted inthe arrow-marked peak.

Chromatographic peaks eluting between 20 and 50 minutes were purified tohomogeneity. Analytical RP-HPLC of purified RTD-1 is shown in FIG. 1B.The purity of RTD-1 was assessed by RP-HPLC of RTD-1 obtained from thepeak (arrow) in FIG. 1A on an analytical C-18 column developed withacetonitrile at 0.5% per min. Acid-urea polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis (PAGE) was also used to analyze purified peptides (seeFIG. 1C). Samples of 30% acetic acid extract (2×10⁶ cell equivalents;lane 1), methanol/water extracted phase (1×10⁷ cell equivalents; lane 2)and 1 μg of RTD-1 were resolved on a 12.5% acid-urea polyacrylamide geland stained with formalin-Coomassie blue.

The purified chromatographic peaks were screened for antibacterialactivity against Escherichia coli ML35 and Staphylococcus aureus 502a.Briefly, antibacterial activity was screened with an agar diffusionassay using lyophilized samples of HPLC fractions dissolved in 5 μl of0.01% acetic acid as described by Lehrer et al., J. Immunol. Methods137:167-173 (1991)). RTD-1 was found to have the greatest activity ofany of the peptides isolated. Microbicidal peptides were characterizedby amino acid analysis (ACCUTAG; Waters; Milford Mass.) and automatedEdman degradation. Sequence analysis was performed by automated Edmandegradation with on-line PTH amino acid analysis. Seven of the eightactive peptides were found to be α-defensins that were similar topreviously characterized human peptides. RTD-1 (arrow in FIG. 1A), wasrelatively abundant (FIGS. 1A and 1C) and possessed the greatestantibacterial activity of any of the peptides isolated. The yield ofRTD-1 was approximately 100 μg per 10⁹ neutrophils.

Amino acid analysis revealed that RTD-1 contained 18 amino acids: 1 Thr,1 Val, 1 Leu, 1 Phe, 1 Ile, 2 Gly, 5 Arg, and 6 Cys. RTD-1 was alsoanalyzed by mass spectroscopy, performed by matrix-assisted laserdesorption ionization/time of flight (MALDI-TOF) on a PerSeptiveBiosystems Voyager RP mass spectrometer (PerSeptive; Framingham MA).Samples (1-10 pmol) were dissolved in water-acetonitrile (1:1)containing 0.1% TFA. MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy analysis of the nativepeptide (2082.0) and S-pyridylethylated peptide (2720.3)(Henschen,Advanced Methods in Protein Microsequence Analysis, Wittmann-Liebold etal., eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 244 (1996)) demonstrated that thesix cysteines exist as three intramolecular disulfides.

Attempts to sequence RTD-1 failed, indicating blockage of the aminoterminus. Therefore, the primary structure of RTD-1 was determined bysequencing overlapping chymotryptic and tryptic fragments. Briefly,RTD-1 disulfides were reduced with dithiothreitol (DTT) and alkylatedwith 4-vinyl pyridine so that cysteine was analyzed as theS-pyridylethyl derivative. S-pyridylethylated peptide (2 nmol) wasdigested at 37° C. for 10 min with 0.4 μg TPCK trypsin or TLCKα-chymotrypsin in 50 μl 1% ammonium bicarbonate, pH 8.0. Peptidefragments were purified by C-18 RP-HPLC and characterized by amino acidanalysis, MALDI-TOF MS, and automated sequencing. FIG. 2A shows theamino acid sequence of the peptide chain as determined by Edmansequencing and MALDI-TOF MS of purified fragments produced by partialacid hydrolysis (methanol/HCl) and digestion with trypsin (T) andchymotrypsin (CT). The sequence analysis revealed that the peptide isentirely cyclized through peptide bonds (see FIG. 2B). The cyclizationof the backbone accounts for the 18 atomic mass number (a.m.u.)difference between the measured mass (2082.0 obtained; 2081.7calculated) of RTD-1 and the theoretical mass of a linear peptide(2099.7) of the same composition.

The disulfide structure of RTD-1 was determined by characterizingprotease digestion fragments produced by sequential incubation of nativepeptide with trypsin and thermolysin. Briefly, 2.5 nmol of RTD-1 wasdigested at 37° C. for 16 h with 0.5 μg TPCK trypsin in 50 μl of 0.1 Mpyridine acetate, pH 6.4. The digest, when fractionated by RP-HPLC, gaveone predominant peak. Analysis by MALDI-TOF MS demonstrated that trypsincleavage occurred at all five arginines, releasing a 17-residue, fourstranded oligopeptide connected by three disulfides (see FIG. 3). 50pmol of the tryptic 17-residue oligopeptide was digested with 10 ng ofthermolysin in 5 μl of 0.1% TFA, adjusted to pH 7 with 0.1 M ammoniumbicarbonate supplemented with 10 mM CaCl₂, for 2 h at 37° C. To thereaction mixture was added 5 μl 0.1% TFA-acetonitrile (1:1). One μlaliquots were analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS as described above.Alternatively, about 3 nmol of the 17-mer were digested with thermolysinunder similar conditions, and the thermolytic fragments were isolated byHPLC. MALDI-TOF MS analysis of individual peaks confirmed the fragmentpattern obtained by analysis of the unfractionated digestion mixture.

Cleavage by trypsin generated a major product that was purified by HPLC,the mass of which was determined to be 1998.1. Comparison of the massand amino acid analysis of this peptide revealed that it was produced bycleavage at the carboxyl side of all 5 arginines, thus generating a17-residue oligopeptide composed of 4 substituent chains linked by threedisulfides (calculated mass=1997.5)(FIG. 3). To distinguish between the8 possible disulfide pairings in the 17-mer, the oligopeptide wasdigested with thermolysin and the resulting fragments were analyzed byMALDI-TOF MS as described above. MS analysis (FIG. 3; calculated valuesin parentheses) of the digest or of HPLC-purified fragments disclosedthermolytic cleavage at Cys-14/Ile-15 and at Cys-5/Leu-6 (arrows),producing four major thermolytic fragments, indicated as Th-1 to Th-4 inFIG. 3. The masses of all fragments were consistent with the disulfideassignments shown in FIG. 3.

The m/z values of the thermolysin fragments were consistent with onlyone cystine motif, which is shown in FIG. 3, revealing that the cyclicchain is stabilized by 3 disulfides in a picket fence-like array thatstabilizes two hypothetical β-strands connected by turns at both ends(see FIG. 4). Schematically, RTD-1 resembles the Greek letter theta(FIG. 4), hence the selection of “theta” defensin to describe thismolecular motif.

RTD-1 is the first example of a macrocyclic peptide or protein inanimals. It is highly cationic, possessing a net charge of +5 at pH 7(calculated pI>12), and its dense cystine motif in RTD-1 is distinctfrom that determined for α or β defensins (Tang and Selsted, J. Biol.Chem. 268:6649-6653 (1993)). The cyclic structure of RTD-1 reveals thatprimate cells possess a post-translational processing pathway capable ofproducing a head-to-tail ligated peptide chain. Analogous macrocyclicpeptides have been isolated from plants of the Rubiaceae family and,like RTD-1, these molecules possess three intramolecular disulfides(Derua et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 228:632-638 (1996)). Twoof these peptides are reported to have antiviral activity against HIV-1(Gustafson et al., J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 116:9337 (1994)). The plantpeptides differ from RTD-1 in their size (29-31 amino acids) and theircystine motif, which is characterized by “overlapping” disulfides (seeFIG. 4). Thus far, the genes encoding these plant peptides have not beencharacterized, nor have mechanisms been proposed for the formation ofthe cyclic backbone. The only other known macrocyclic peptides arecysteine-free peptides. One, AS-48, is a plasmid-encoded peptideexpressed by Enterococcus faecalis (Galvez et al., Antimicrob. AgentsChemother. 33:437 (1989)). The second is J25, a microcin from E. coli(Blond et al, Eur. J. Biochem. 259:747-755 (1999)).

Searches for amino acid sequence similarity to RTD-1 were carried outusing all 18 possible linearized peptides as query sequences (Altschulet al., Nucleic Acids Res. 25:3389-3402 (1997)). Taking intoconsideration the linear cysteine spacing and disulfide connectivitiesof RTD-1, the most similar protein sequence identified was that of theporcine antimicrobial peptide protegrin 3 (PG-3)(see FIG. 4). Protegrinsare 17-18 amino acid, di-disulfide containing peptides that are membersof the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides (Zanetti et al.,FEBS Lett. 374:1-5 (1995)). Cathelicidins share a high degree ofsequence similarity in the prepro-regions of their precursors, but thecarboxyl termini, containing the antimicrobial peptide segments, varymarkedly. Like protegrins, RTD-1 is predicted to be predominantlycomposed of two disulfide stabilized β strands connected by turns.

A model of RTD-1 was constructed by energy minimization of the covalentstructure. Briefly, the RTD-1 backbone and disulfides were constructedusing the Insight II program. Energy minimization was used to allow thestructure to relax in vacuo, and the molecule was then placed into a25.0 Å radius sphere of water. With the peptide fixed, water moleculeswere first energy minimized, and the energy of the entire complex wasthen minimized. Molecular dynamics simulations were then carried out at300 K. After 5 psec, the total energy did not show fluctuations greaterthan 183 atom units, and the structure appeared stable. Further energyminimization resulted in the peptide structure shown in FIG. 4. Theconsistent valence force field (cvff) was used in all molecularmechanics and molecular dynamics calculations. FIG. 5 shows thecoordinates used to generate the molecular model shown in FIG. 4.

As shown in FIG. 4, RTD-1 is remarkably similar to the solutionstructure of protegrin 1. This similarity suggested the possibility thatRTD-1 is a member of the cathelicidin family. However, subsequentstudies demonstrated that RTD-1 is not a cathelicidin, but rather theproduct of two α-defensin-related genes (see Example V).

These results demonstrate that theta defensin isolated from macaqueneutrophils, RTD-1, is a macrocyclic peptide linked head-to-tail andcontaining three intramolecular disulfide bonds.

EXAMPLE II Solid Phase Synthesis of Theta Defensin

This example describes chemical synthesis of theta defensin.

A synthetic version of RTD-1 was produced by solid phase synthesis.Inspection of the theta defensin disulfide motif suggested that assemblyof a linear 18-mer in which Gly¹ was placed at the amino terminus (seeFIG. 4) would both facilitate disulfide-bond formation and proximatepositioning of the amino and carboxyl termini for cyclization. A linearversion of RTD-1 was assembled using Fmoc chemistry, cleaved,deprotected, and the reduced peptide was purified by RP-HPLC at pH 2.1.A schematic of the synthesis is shown in FIG. 6A.

The linear peptide chain of the monkey peptide was assembled on PEG-PSresin at 0.2 mmol scale on a Millipore 9050 Plus continuous-flow peptidesynthesizer (Millipore; Bedford Mass.). Fmoc-chemistry was utilized andthe following protecting groups were employed: Arg(Pbf)(2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyldihydrobenzofuran-5-sulfonyl); Cys(Trt) (trityl ortriphenylmethyl); and Thr(tBu) (tert-butyl). All amino acids exceptcysteine were coupled byO-(7-azabenzotriazol-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluroniumhexafluorophosphate/N,N-diisopropylethylamine (HATU/DIEA) activation.Cysteine was coupled as the preformed pentafluorophenyl ester. Ile, Leuand Thr were double-coupled. The protecting groups were removed and thepeptide was cleaved from the resin by 5 hour treatment with 100 ml ofReagent-K, containing TFA-phenol-water-thioanisole-1,2-ethanedithiol(82.5:5:5:5:2.5), at room temperature with agitation. The crude peptidewas separated from the resin by glass fiber filtration. The resin wasrinsed consecutively with 5 ml of Reagent-K, 50 ml of 30% aceticacid/water and 50 ml of methylene chloride, and the washes were added tothe initial filtrate. After vigorous mixing and phase-separation, thepeptide-containing aqueous phase was extracted twice with methylenechloride (2×50 ml) and lyophilized, giving 225 mg (54% yield) of crudeproduct obtained as a white powder.

A 25 mg sample of lyophilized crude material was dissolved in 6 Mguanidine HCl, 0.2 M Tris-HCl, 0.2 mM EDTA, and reduced with an excessof dithiothreitol at 50° C. for 4 hrs under nitrogen. The reactionmixture was acidified by addition of acetic acid to a 5% v/v finalconcentration, and the reduced product was isolated by RP-HPLCpurification on a C-18 column using 0.1% TFA/acetonitrile-water solventsystem. The reduced peptide was diluted to 0.1 mg/ml in 0.1% aceticacid, and the pH was adjusted to 7.5 with ammonium hydroxide. Oxidationwas carried out by stirring in an open vessel at room temperature for 18hr, after which time the solution was found to be negative for freesulfhydryls based on a negative reaction with Ellman's reagent, and HPLCanalysis showed quantitative conversion of the reduced peptide to theoxidized form.

The oxidized peptide was purified by RP-HPLC on a semi-preparative C-18column using a 0.1% HCl/acetonitrile-water solvent system yielding 9.0mg of peptide. MALDI-TOF MS measurements were consistent with theacyclic form of RTD-1 shown in FIG. 6A. The peptide was air oxidized,repurified by HPLC, and converted to the hydrochloride salt by RP-HPLCin solvents containing 0.1% HCl as described above.

The oxidized peptide was then cyclized by activating the carboxyl group(FIG. 6A). The oxidized acyclic synthetic peptide was cyclized to forman amide bond between the amino group of Gly-1 and the carboxyl group ofArg-18. After 3.0 mg of acyclic oxidized RTD-1 was repeatedlylyophilized to remove volatile components, cyclization was carried outin 3.0 ml of dimethylsulfoxide containing 60 and 20 equivalents ofethylenediaminecarbodiimide and 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt),respectively, for 18 hours at room temperature. The resulting solutionwas lyophilized and purified by RP-HPLC.

The cyclization reaction mixture gave a major peak that coeluted withnatural RTD-1. MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy demonstrated that the product(1.7 mg, 56.6% yield) had the expected mass of the cyclic peptide. Inaddition, the material in this peak coeluted with natural RTD-1 onanalytical RP-HPLC, co-electrophoresed with natural RTD-1 on acid-ureaPAGE, and had identical CD spectra in water, methanol, and 10 mM sodiumphosphate, pH 7.4.

The cyclized peptide, generated by formation of a peptide bond betweenGly¹and Arg¹⁸, was formed with a yield of 56%. Analysis of the disulfidepattern of cyclized synthetic RTD-1 was carried out as described for thenatural peptide, and confirmed that the cysteines were correctly paired.The equivalence of natural and synthetic TD-1 was confirmed by MALDI-TOFMS, analytical RP-HPLC (FIG. 6B) and acid-urea PAGE (FIG. 6B, inset).Circular dichroism spectroscopy was also performed on synthetic andnatural RTD-1 (FIG. 6C). Circular dichroic spectra of synthetic andnatural RTD-1 were determined in water, 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer,and methanol at a peptide concentration of 111 μg/ml (53.3 μM). CDspectroscopy confirmed the equivalence of the synthetic and naturalRTD-1.

These results indicate that theta defensin can be chemically synthesizedin a form equivalent to natural RTD-1.

EXAMPLE III Antimicrobial Activity of Theta Defensin

This example demonstrates that theta defensin exhibits broad spectrumantimicrobial activity.

Agar diffusion assays and microbicidal suspension assays were used toexamine the activity of theta defensin against Staphylococcus aureus502A, Escherichia coli ML35, Listeria monocytogenes, and Cryptococcusneoformans. For agar diffusion assays, theta defensin activity wasdetermined at concentrations 10, 30, 100 or 300 μg/ml in agar platesseeded with 1×10⁶ colony forming units of each microorganism. thetadefensin demonstrated a dose dependent increase in the zone ofinhibition for each of the microorganisms examined (see FIG. 7).

The in vitro antimicrobial properties of RTD-1 were further evaluated inmicrobicidal assays against a panel of bacterial and fungal testorganisms. Increasing concentrations of natural and synthetic RTD-1 wereincubated with Staphylococcus aureus 502a for 2 h at 37° C. in 10 mMPIPES, pH 7.4 (FIG. 8). Killing was quantified by colony counts. Asshown in FIG. 8, nearly complete killing (99 to 99.99%) of this organismwas achieved at peptide concentrations of 2-4 μg/ml of natural andsynthetic RTD-1, and both preparations reduced colony counts to belowthe level of detection at peptide concentrations≧4 μg/ml.

Additional antimicrobial assays were conducted on other microbialorganisms. FIG. 9 shows microbicidal activity of RTD-1. In FIG. 9A, S.aureus 502a was incubated with increasing concentrations of natural orsynthetic peptide for 30 min at 37° C. in 10 mM PIPES, pH 7.4,containing 5 mM glucose. Killing was quantified by colony counts. InFIGS. 9B to 9D, each test organism was incubated for 2 hr with RTD-1, asin FIG. 9A, at the peptide concentrations indicated. The limit ofdetection (1 colony per plate) was equal to 1×10³ colony forming unitsin the incubation mixture. The results shown in FIG. 9 demonstrate thatthe synthetic RTD-1 killed gram positive bacteria (S. aureus, L.monocytogenes), gram negative bacteria (E. coli ML 35, S. typhimurium),and fungi (C. albicans and C. neoformans) at similar peptideconcentrations.

Several previous studies have demonstrated that in vitrodefensin-mediated microbicidal activity is antagonized by increasedionic strength (Bals et al., Infect. Immun. 66:1225 (1998); Valore etal., J. Clin. Invest. 101:1633 (1998); Goldman et al., Cell 88:553(1997); Smith et al., Cell 85:229 (1996)). It has been proposed thatsalt sensitivity of airway defensins underlies the susceptibility ofcystic fibrosis patients to pulmonary infections. The effect of ionicstrength on RTD-1 bactericidal activity was tested in a killing assayagainst S. aureus 502a. Killing of S. aureus 502a was assessed after a 2h incubation as in FIG. 9A, with 10 μg/ml of natural or synthetic RTD-1supplemented with increasing concentrations of NaCl (FIG. 9E). NaClconcentrations as high as 150 mM had little effect on the staphylocidalactivity of natural or synthetic RTD-1 (FIG. 9E). These results indicatethat RTD-1 is clearly distinguished from the salt-mediated inhibition ofα or β defensins.

An acyclic version of theta defensin was also tested for antimicrobialactivity. As shown in FIG. 10, S. aureus was incubated with increasingconcentrations of acyclic RTD-1 with (solid circles) or without (opencircles) 130 mM NaCl. Killing activity was quantified by colony countsafter 18 hrs. In contrast to the cyclic form of theta defensin, theacyclic form exhibits lower activity in the presence of NaCl (FIG. 10).The cyclic form is about three times more active than the acyclic formof theta defensin in both gram positive bacteria (Staphylococcus) andgram negative bacteria (E. coli). These results demonstrate that anacyclic form of theta defensin has antimicrobial activity.

These results demonstrate that theta defensin, both synthetic andnatural, has wide antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria,gram negative bacteria and fungi.

EXAMPLE IV Immunolocalization of RTD-1 in Rhesus Leukocytes

This example describes the generation of anti-RTD-1 antibody anddetermination of the localization of RTD-1 in rhesus leukocytes.

Anti-RTD-1 antibody was produced by immunizing New Zealand white rabbitswith an immunogen composed of the oxidized, open chain version of thepeptide (see FIG. 6A) conjugated to ovalbumin. Briefly, immunogen wasprepared by conjugating 1.2 mg acyclic RTD-1 (FIG. 6A) with 1.2 mgovalbumin in 2.4 ml of 0.1 M sodium phosphate, pH 7.4, containing 0.1%glutaraldehyde. The mixture was stirred for 18 h at room temperature,quenched with 0.3 M glycine and the mixture was dialyzed in 500molecular weight cut off tubing against water and lyophilized. Two NewZealand white rabbits were immunized with the conjugate. The antiserafrom both rabbits had a titer of greater than 1:2500 as determined bycompetitive ELISA using RTD-1 conjugated to goat gamma globulin as thetarget antigen.

Dot blot analysis demonstrated that anti-RTD-1 antiserum reacted withnatural and synthetic RTD-1, and the oxidized acyclic version of RTD-1.The anti-RTD-1 antibody did not recognize any of the previouslycharacterized α-defensins (HNP 1-4) expressed by human leukocytes norany of the rhesus leukocyte α-defensins.

To determine which leukocytic lineages express RTD-1, cytospinpreparations of peripheral blood buffy coat cells, fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde, were incubated with 1:100 rabbit anti-RTD-1 antiserumand developed with biotinylated goat anti-rabbit IgG. The fixed cellswere washed and incubated with avidin/biotin/glucose oxidase complex,which was subsequently visualized with nitroblue tetrazolium. Cells werecounterstained with Nuclear Fast Red. For a negative control, buffy coatcells were incubated with anti-RTD-1 antiserum that was preabsorbed withsynthetic acyclic RTD-1 (1 mg per ml antiserum).

Immunostaining of buffy coat leukocytes demonstrated strong, punctatestaining in neutrophil cytoplasm, similar to immunolocalization studiesof neutrophil α-defensins, which are stored in azurophil granules (FIG.11). Though staining less strongly than neutrophils, monocytes were alsoimmunopositive, while lymphocytes and eosinophils were negative. Theseresults demonstrate the presence of RTD-1 in the two major phagocyticcells of the blood.

EXAMPLE V Theta Defensin is the Product of Two Independent GenesEncoding Distinct Portions of Theta Defensin

This example describes the cloning of two distinct theta defensin genesfrom macaques, each gene encoding a specific portion of theta defensin.

In order to understand the transcriptional and translational pathwaysinvolved in the production of cyclic RTD-1, the corresponding cDNA wascloned. The finding that RTD-1 is expressed in myeloid cells suggestedthat its mRNA would be abundant in bone marrow cells. Using rhesusmacaque bone marrow mRNA as template, 3′ rapid amplification of cDNAends (RACE) was carried out using degenerate primers corresponding todifferent 6 or 7 amino acid sequences in the RTD-1 backbone. Polymerasechain reaction (PCR) products were subcloned and sequenced, revealingthat portions of the RTD-1 mature peptide sequence were amplified usingthe degenerate primer corresponding to GVCRCIC (SEQ ID NO:30). The 3′RACE products were then used to probe a rhesus macaque bone marrow cDNAlibrary. Fifteen positive clones were isolated and sequenced, disclosingtwo very similar cDNAs termed RTD1a and RTD1b.

FIG. 12 shows the full length cDNAs of RTD1a (SEQ ID NO:13) and RTD1b(SEQ ID NO:15) and the corresponding deduced amino acid sequences (SEQID NOS:14 and 16, respectively). Full length cDNA sequences are shownwith the deduced amino acid sequences. Underlined amino acids are foundin RTD-1, and superscript numbers correspond to the residue numbering ofRTD-1 shown in FIG. 2B. ATG of the initiation methionines are in bold,as are the polyadenlation sites at the 3′ ends of the sequences (FIG.12).

At the DNA level, both clones showed a high degree of identity, 90.8%and 91.2% for RTD1a and RTD1b, respectively, to regions of a humandefensin-related pseudogene, GI501091, GenBank accession number U10267.One of the stop codons in this human sequence corresponds exactly to theposition of the stop codon in the RTD-1 sequences (FIG. 12).

At the amino acid level, the RTD-1 precursors were most similar toHNP-4, one of the four known human myeloid α-defensins (FIG. 13).α-defensins are antimicrobial peptides expressed at high levels inneutrophils, in Paneth cells of the small intestine, and in a number ofother specialized epithelia. Although the RTD-1 and α-defensin sequencesand disulfide structures are quite different (FIG. 13), the RTD1a andRTD1b mRNAs encode polypeptides that are very similar in sequence tomyeloid α-defensin precursors (43% identity). However, RTD 1a and 1bappear to be truncated α-defensins, as stop codons are present in thecoding sequences about half way through the open reading framecorresponding to the mature α-defensin peptides (FIG. 13).

Inspection of the RTD1a and RTD1b cDNAs revealed that they each encode76 amino acid prepropeptides in which are contained 9 of the 18 residuesin the mature RTD-1 peptide. From RTD1a, amino acids 65 to 73 correspondto RTD-1 residues 13 to 18 and 1 to 3. In RTD1b, the same residues 65 to73 in the precursor correspond to RTD-1 amino acids 4 to 12 (FIGS. 12and 13). A tripeptide at the carboxyl end of each precursor is removedprior to a pair of ligation events necessary for peptide cyclization.

The RTD1.1 and RTD1.2 genomic sequences were determined, confirming thatthe corresponding cDNAs derive from distinct transcriptional units (FIG.14). The 3 exon, 2 intron gene structure and organization are verysimilar to that of the myeloid α-defensins characterized in humans,rabbits, and guinea pigs.

Expression of RTD-1 mRNA was analyzed by northern blotting of RNA fromselected rhesus tissues using a random prime labeled PCR productcontaining nucleotides 200 to 231 in RTD1a and 195 to 326 in RTD1b. TheDNA probe for specific hybridization to RTD1a and RTD1b is shown in FIG.15. Hybridization was performed at 42° C. overnight in 5×SSPE (20×SSPEis 3M NaCl, 0.2M phosphate, pH 7.4, 0.025M ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid (EDTA); 4×Denhardt's (50×Denhardt's is 1% Ficoll 1%polyvinylpyrrolidone, 1% bovine serum albumin (BSA)); 4.8% sodiumdodecyl sulfate (SDS); and 40% formamide. The blots were washed at 42°C., followed by washing at 50° C. with 0.5×SSC (20×SSC is 3M NaCl, 0.3Msodium citrate, pH 7.0) and 2% SDS. These probes were shown to bespecific for RTD-1 by Southern slot blot analysis, as they did nothybridize to plasmids containing known rhesus myeloid defensin cDNAs inSouthern Blots, but they hybridized strongly to plasmids containing theRTD1a and RTD1b cDNAs.

Various tissues were analyzed for expression of RTD-1 mRNA, includinglymph node, stomach, thyroid, jejunum, liver, adrenal, thymus, kidney,lung, pancreas, ovary, colonic mucosa, trachea, spleen, bone marrow,skeletal muscle, brain, and testis. RTD-1 mRNA was detected only in bonemarrow. The hybridizing signal was 0.54 kb, consistent with the size ofthe cDNA.

Human theta defensin cDNA was also isolated. The human theta defensincDNA was amplified from human bone marrow cDNA using primers deducedfrom RTD1a and RTD1b. FIG. 16 shows the human theta defensin cDNAsequence (SEQ ID NO:28) and the deduced amino acid sequence (SEQ IDNO:29). The human theta defensin peptide region corresponds to aminoacid residues 65 to 73 in the precursor (SEQ ID NO:18).

To confirm that RTD-1 is in fact produced by the ligation of RTD-1a andRTD-1b gene products, transfection experiments were conducted using thehuman promyelocytic cell line HL-60. Since synthesis of azurophilgranule contents occurs through the promyelocyte stage, it was likelythat the cellular machinery for synthesis and processing RTD-1 wouldexist in this cell line.

Cells were transfected with pcDNA3.1 (Invitrogen; San Diego Calif.)constructs containing the RTD1a and RTD1b coding sequences downstream ofthe CMV immediate early promoter. Stable transfectants and control HL-60cells were immunostained with anti-RTD-1 antibody (see Example IV). Asshown in FIG. 17, cells transfected with vectors containing the RTD1aand RTD1b cDNAs were strongly immunopositive (FIG. 17A). Non-transfectedcells (FIG. 17B) stained with anti-RTD-1 anti-serum were immunonegative,as were transfected cells stained with preimmune serum (FIG. 17C). Thesedata confirm the relationship between RTD-1 peptide and the two cDNAs,and indicate that transfected HL-60 cells may be useful for studying theprocessing pathway leading to the final cyclic structure.

These results demonstrate that RTD-1 peptide is the product of twogenes, RTD-1a and RTD-1b, which are expressed and processed to form theRTD-1 theta defensin.

Throughout this application various publications have been referenced.The disclosures of these publications in their entireties are herebyincorporated by reference in this application in order to more fullydescribe the state of the art to which this invention pertains.

Although the invention has been described with reference to the examplesprovided above, it should be understood that various modifications canbe made without departing from the spirit of the invention. Accordingly,the invention is limited only by the claims.

31 1 18 PRT Macaca mulatta 1 Gly Phe Cys Arg Cys Leu Cys Arg Arg Gly ValCys Arg Cys Ile Cys 1 5 10 15 Thr Arg 2 4 PRT Macaca mulatta 2 Gly PheCys Arg 1 3 4 PRT Macaca mulatta 3 Cys Arg Cys Leu 1 4 4 PRT Macacamulatta 4 Cys Leu Cys Arg 1 5 6 PRT Macaca mulatta 5 Cys Arg Arg Gly ValCys 1 5 6 5 PRT Macaca mulatta 6 Arg Gly Val Cys Arg 1 5 7 8 PRT Macacamulatta 7 Arg Cys Ile Cys Thr Arg Gly Phe 1 5 8 5 PRT Macaca mulatta 8Cys Ile Cys Thr Arg 1 5 9 18 PRT Macaca mulatta 9 Thr Arg Gly Phe CysArg Cys Leu Cys Arg Arg Gly Val Cys Arg Cys 1 5 10 15 Ile Cys 10 30 PRTChassalia parviflora 10 Asn Lys Val Cys Tyr Arg Asn Gly Ile Pro Cys GlyGlu Ser Cys Val 1 5 10 15 Trp Ile Pro Cys Ile Ser Ala Ala Leu Gly CysSer Cys Lys 20 25 30 11 18 PRT Sus scrofa 11 Arg Gly Gly Arg Leu Cys TyrCys Arg Arg Arg Phe Cys Val Cys Val 1 5 10 15 Gly Arg 12 30 PRT Homosapiens 12 Val Cys Ser Cys Arg Leu Val Phe Cys Arg Arg Thr Glu Leu ArgVal 1 5 10 15 Gly Asn Cys Leu Ile Gly Gly Val Ser Phe Thr Tyr Cys Cys 2025 30 13 500 DNA Macaca mulatta CDS (95)..(325) 13 gacggctgct gttgctacaggagacccagg acagaggact gctgtctgca ctctctcttc 60 actctgccta acttgaggatctgtcactcc agcc atg agg acc ttc gcc ctc ctc 115 Met Arg Thr Phe Ala LeuLeu 1 5 acc gcc atg ctt ctc ctg gtg gcc ctg cac gct cag gca gag gca cgt163 Thr Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val Ala Leu His Ala Gln Ala Glu Ala Arg 1015 20 cag gca aga gct gat gaa gct gcc gcc cag cag cag cct gga aca gat211 Gln Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala Ala Ala Gln Gln Gln Pro Gly Thr Asp 2530 35 gat cag gga atg gct cat tcc ttt aca tgg cct gaa aac gcc gct ctt259 Asp Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser Phe Thr Trp Pro Glu Asn Ala Ala Leu 4045 50 55 cca ctt tca gag tca gcg aaa ggc ttg agg tgc att tgc aca cga gga307 Pro Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Lys Gly Leu Arg Cys Ile Cys Thr Arg Gly 6065 70 ttc tgc cgt ttg tta taa tgtcaccttg ggtcctgcgc ttttcgtggt 355 PheCys Arg Leu Leu 75 tgactccacc ggatctgctg ccgctgagct tccagaatcaagaaaaatat gctcagaagt 415 tactttgaga gttaaaagaa attcttgcta ctgctgtaccttctcctcag tttccttttc 475 tcatcccaaa taaatacctt atcgc 500 14 76 PRTMacaca mulatta 14 Met Arg Thr Phe Ala Leu Leu Thr Ala Met Leu Leu LeuVal Ala Leu 1 5 10 15 His Ala Gln Ala Glu Ala Arg Gln Ala Arg Ala AspGlu Ala Ala Ala 20 25 30 Gln Gln Gln Pro Gly Thr Asp Asp Gln Gly Met AlaHis Ser Phe Thr 35 40 45 Trp Pro Glu Asn Ala Ala Leu Pro Leu Ser Glu SerAla Lys Gly Leu 50 55 60 Arg Cys Ile Cys Thr Arg Gly Phe Cys Arg Leu Leu65 70 75 15 495 DNA Macaca mulatta CDS (90)..(320) 15 gaccgctgctcttgctacag gagacccggg acagaggact gctgtctgcc ctctctcttc 60 actctgcctaacttgaggat ctgccagcc atg agg acc ttc gcc ctc ctc acc 113 Met Arg Thr PheAla Leu Leu Thr 1 5 gcc atg ctt ctc ctg gtg gcc ctg cac gct cag gca gaggca cgt cag 161 Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val Ala Leu His Ala Gln Ala Glu AlaArg Gln 10 15 20 gca aga gct gat gaa gct gcc gcc cag cag cag cct gga gcagat gat 209 Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala Ala Ala Gln Gln Gln Pro Gly Ala AspAsp 25 30 35 40 cag gga atg gct cat tcc ttt aca cgg cct gaa aac gcc gctctt ccg 257 Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser Phe Thr Arg Pro Glu Asn Ala Ala LeuPro 45 50 55 ctt tca gag tca gcg aga ggc ttg agg tgc ctt tgc aga cga ggagtt 305 Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Arg Gly Leu Arg Cys Leu Cys Arg Arg Gly Val60 65 70 tgc caa ctg tta taa aggcgtttgg ggtcctgcgc ttttcgtggt tgactctgcc360 Cys Gln Leu Leu 75 ggatctgctg ccgctgagct tccagaatca agaaaaatacgctcagaagt tactttgaga 420 gttgaaagaa attcctgtta ctcctgtacc ttgtcctcaatttccttttc tcatcccaaa 480 taaatacctt ctcgc 495 16 76 PRT Macaca mulatta16 Met Arg Thr Phe Ala Leu Leu Thr Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val Ala Leu 1 510 15 His Ala Gln Ala Glu Ala Arg Gln Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala Ala Ala 2025 30 Gln Gln Gln Pro Gly Ala Asp Asp Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser Phe Thr 3540 45 Arg Pro Glu Asn Ala Ala Leu Pro Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Arg Gly Leu 5055 60 Arg Cys Leu Cys Arg Arg Gly Val Cys Gln Leu Leu 65 70 75 17 27 DNAMacaca mulatta CDS (1)..(27) 17 agg tgc att tgc aca cga gga ttc tgc 27Arg Cys Ile Cys Thr Arg Gly Phe Cys 1 5 18 9 PRT Macaca mulatta 18 ArgCys Ile Cys Thr Arg Gly Phe Cys 1 5 19 27 DNA Macaca mulatta CDS(1)..(27) 19 agg tgc ctt tgc aga cga gga gtt tgc 27 Arg Cys Leu Cys ArgArg Gly Val Cys 1 5 20 9 PRT Macaca mulatta 20 Arg Cys Leu Cys Arg ArgGly Val Cys 1 5 21 92 PRT Macaca mulatta 21 Met Arg Thr Phe Ala Leu LeuThr Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val Ala Leu 1 5 10 15 His Ala Gln Ala Glu AlaArg Gln Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala Ala Ala 20 25 30 Gln Gln Gln Pro Gly ThrAsp Asp Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser Phe Thr 35 40 45 Trp Pro Glu Asn Ala AlaLeu Pro Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Lys Gly Leu 50 55 60 Arg Cys Ile Cys Thr ArgGly Phe Cys Arg Leu Leu Cys His Leu Gly 65 70 75 80 Ser Cys Ala Phe ArgGly Leu His Arg Ile Cys Cys 85 90 22 92 PRT Macaca mulatta 22 Met ArgThr Phe Ala Leu Leu Thr Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val Ala Leu 1 5 10 15 HisAla Gln Ala Glu Gln Arg Gln Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala Ala Ala 20 25 30 GlnGln Gln Pro Gly Ala Asp Asp Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser Phe Thr 35 40 45 ArgPro Glu Asn Ala Ala Leu Pro Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Arg Gly Leu 50 55 60 ArgCys Leu Cys Arg Arg Gly Val Cys Gln Leu Leu Arg Arg Leu Gly 65 70 75 80Ser Cys Ala Phe Arg Gly Leu Cys Arg Ile Cys Cys 85 90 23 97 PRT Macacamulatta 23 Met Arg Ile Ile Ala Leu Leu Ala Ala Ile Leu Leu Val Ala LeuGln 1 5 10 15 Val Arg Ala Gly Pro Leu Gln Ala Arg Gly Asp Glu Ala ProGly Gln 20 25 30 Glu Gln Arg Gly Pro Glu Asp Gln Asp Ile Ser Ile Ser PheAla Trp 35 40 45 Asp Lys Ser Ser Ala Leu Gln Val Ser Gly Ser Thr Arg GlyMet Val 50 55 60 Cys Ser Cys Arg Leu Val Phe Cys Arg Arg Thr Glu Leu ArgVal Gly 65 70 75 80 Asn Cys Leu Ile Gly Gly Val Ser Phe Thr Tyr Cys CysThr Arg Val 85 90 95 Asp 24 2525 DNA Macaca mulatta 24 gacggctgctgttgctacag gagacccagg acagaggact gctgtctgca ctctctcttc 60 actctgcctaacttgaggat ctgtaagtaa cacaaaactt aaactttcct gtcgaggttt 120 gaacattgaagctgtgcccc taatctgacc tgtgactcct gggccacccc agagagacct 180 agtgggtgaatcccctgctg tgcatttctg tctgaacctc tgggggctgc tgggagcatt 240 ggctaccagctcaattaata gagaaactca aggaatttcc ttctaattac atgtgtccta 300 cttgacacatccaacagaga caacaatagc tccttaaaac acccttttgt ttggagagaa 360 gccaatccagatcctcggcc tgtttttcaa tcaggttatt tgttatttac tattgagttg 420 tttgactgccttatgtattt agatatttac cccttctacc acttaggatt tgcaactatc 480 gtctttcattttctgggttg ctttttcact cagttgatta tttgtttgtt ggttttttga 540 cgtgcagatgctttagaggt cagtgcagcc ccacttgcct cttttcccat ttattgcctg 600 tgtctttggtgtcatagcaa agatatcatt accaacatca atgtcaaagc gtcatcttca 660 tatattcctctcgtcgtttt atggtttcag gtctatgttt gggtcttcaa tccattttga 720 gttgatttgtgaaatagata tgataaggcc acatgtatca aacatcaaat cctaaggtgc 780 agacagtagatatataccat tttnattctt attcacatct ctatagagct ggaaacaaat 840 ttttggctgtagatgaactt tttacctcga tatgtcagtg ttcatttcac ctatcatatg 900 atagggtcattgttctcttc acactggccc ctacaggagg ctactcaccc catgccttcg 960 ggagtgtggtcaagcccttg atgcctccaa taaatgactc tttacttgat aggaaatcat 1020 acctgctgccagagtgtaga cctacagaga gtagtagggc catctgcagg aagagacatt 1080 tgtcgcctgacctcattgaa taaaatcact gctgttatcc tttgctagaa gagttaaaag 1140 taaatatttcgtaaagtgag aaacaggaat cctcatcatc atcctcatca aaccagcaca 1200 gacactaaacatagagattc aaactagagt gaaagctggg agaccaaaag aagaaaacat 1260 ggacattgagaccaatggga tcccacacaa tctccagtga aatgcacacc tcctctctct 1320 gagaaggttcaaggtttcct gtctctgagc ctcctctctg cagacataga aatccagact 1380 aactcctctctcccgacttg tccgctcctg ctctgcctct tccaggtcac tccagccatg 1440 aggaccttcgccctcctcac cgccatgctt ctcctggtgg ccctgcacgc tcaggcagag 1500 gcacgtcaggcaagagctga tgaagctgcc gcccagcagc agcctggaac agatgatcag 1560 ggaatggctcattcctttac atggcctgaa aacgccgctc ttccactttc aggtgagaca 1620 ggccggcatgcagagctgca gggtctagag ggatggatgg gagacagagt cgggaatcga 1680 gtctcagtggtccttgtcac ctagatggct tcatttagca tctctgggcc ttggttttct 1740 catctataaattgaatacag aaccaaataa atctagcagg tttctgtcta taaagacttg 1800 aggcagctctgcctggagag taaccattct tttattcctt tacttcctta acgatccttt 1860 cactttagaaaatcaataaa attaaaaaat aagacttgaa atcaacatat gtctgtgaaa 1920 ttcagtaggtttaagatatg aagaaacagt ctgctagttc tttctggatt caaacaagtc 1980 atcttcattacatggataat atttgactgt atctatacaa ccgtttctaa gagtagagac 2040 aagcctaagagtgcgttcag gtgtgtgtct gatgggcaga agcacaaaaa atgaaagcaa 2100 atgagaataagtctcaaatc ctgtatgacc agcactgctc tgtgtattta ttcttaatga 2160 ctgaagttgttcatgctacc ggccctaatg cagccgacat cactcattag ctagcacatg 2220 acttctccaggattcccttt gccacccact gctgaccttc tgatccattt acgatgctct 2280 ctctgtgttcccagagtcag cgaaaggctt gaggtgcatt tgcacacgag gattctgccg 2340 tttgttataatgtcaccttg ggtcctgcgc ttttcgtggt tgactccacc ggatctgctg 2400 ccgctgagcttccagaatca agaaaaatat gctcagaagt tactttgaga gttaaaagaa 2460 attcttgctactgctgtacc ttctcctcag tttccttttc tcatcccaaa taaatacctt 2520 ctcgc 252525 2553 DNA Macaca mulatta 25 gaccgctgct cttgctacag gagacccgggacagaggact gctgtctgcc ctctctcttc 60 actctgccta acttgaggat ctgtaagtaacacaaaactt aaactttcct gtcgaggttt 120 gaacattgaa gctgtgcacc caatctgacctgtgactcct gggccacccc agagggacct 180 agtgggtgaa tcccctgctg tgcatttctgtctgaacctc tgggggctgc tgggagcatt 240 ggctaccagc tcaattaata gagaaactcaagaaatttcc ttctacttac acgtgtccta 300 cttgacacgt ccaacagaga caacaatagctccttaaaac acccttttat ttggagagaa 360 gccgatcctg ctcctcggcc tatttttcaatcaggttatt tcttatttgc tactgagttg 420 tttgattgcc ttatgcattt agatgttcaccctttctacc acttagggtt tgcaactatt 480 gtctttcatt ttctgagttg ctttttcactcagttgatta tttatttgtt ggtttggttt 540 tttgacgtgc atttgcttta gaggtcagtgcagccccact tgtctctttt cccgtttatt 600 gcctgtgtct ttggtgtcat agcaaagatatcattaccaa catcaatgtc aaagcattat 660 cttcatatgt tcctctcgtc gtttacggtttcaggactat gtttgggtct tcaatccatt 720 ttgagttggt ttgtgaaata gatatgataaagaccacatg tatcaaacat caaatcctaa 780 ggtggagtac agtagatata taccatttttcattcttatt catatctcta tagagctgga 840 aatgaatttt tcagtgtaga tgaaattttgaccttgatat cactgtgttc atttcaccta 900 tcgcatgata gggtcattgt cctcttcacattggccccta caggaggcta cacacctcat 960 gccttcatga gagtgatcat gcctatgatgcctgcaacaa atcactcttc acttgacagg 1020 aaattcatgc ctgctgccag agtgtagacccatagagagt cgtggggcca tctgaaggaa 1080 aggagacatt tgtatcctga acttactgaacaaagcactg ctgttatcct ttggtagaac 1140 agtaaaaagt aaatatgtaa tgaagtgagaaacaggagaa agatgccagg ttcctcatct 1200 tcaccatcct ctccatcagc acagacactaaacatagaga ttcaaactag agtgaaagct 1260 gggagagcaa aagaagaaaa catggacattgagaccaatg ggatcccata caatctccag 1320 tgaaatgcac agctcctctc tctgagaaggttcaagattt cctgtctctg agccttctct 1380 ctgcagacat agaaatccag actaactcctctctcccgac ttgtctgctc ctgctcttcc 1440 tcctccaggt cactccagcc atgaggaccttcgccctcct caccgccatg cttctcctgg 1500 tggccctgca cgctcaggca gaggcacgtcaggcaagagc tgatgaagct gccgcccagc 1560 agcagcctgg agcagatgat cagggaatggctcattcctt tacacggcct gaaaacgccg 1620 ctcttccgct ttcaggtgag acaggccggcatgcagagct acagggtcta gagggatgga 1680 tgggagacag agtcgggaat cgagtctcagtggtccatgt cacctagatg gcttcattta 1740 gcatctctgg gccttggttt tctcatctataaattgaata gagagccaaa gaagtctaac 1800 aggttttctg tctataaaga tttgaggcagctctgcctgg agagtaacca ttcttttatt 1860 cccttacttc cttaatgatc ctttcactttagagaatcaa taaaattaaa aaataaaact 1920 tgaaatcaag atatgtctgt gaaattcaagtaggtttaag acatgaagag acagtctgac 1980 tagttctttc tggattcaaa caagtcatcttcattacacg gagaatattt gactgtatct 2040 atacaaccgt ttctaagagt agagacaagcctaagagtgc attcaggtgt ttgtgtttga 2100 tggggcacag gcacaaaaat gagagcaaatgagaataagt ctcaaatcct gtgtgaccag 2160 cactactctg tgtatttatt cctactgactgaggttgttc atgctaccgg cccgaatgca 2220 gctgacatcc ctcattagct agcacatgacttctccagga ttccctttgt cactcactgc 2280 agaccttctg atccatttat gatgctttctctgtgtcccc agagtcagcg agaggcttga 2340 ggtgcctttg cagacgagga gtttgccaactgttataaag gcgtttgggg tcctgcgctt 2400 ttcgtggttg actctgccgg atctgctgccgctgagcttc cagaatcaag aaaaatacgc 2460 tcagaagtta ctttgagagt tgaaagaaattcctgttact cctgtacctt gtcctcaatt 2520 tccttttctc atcccaaata aataccttctcgc 2553 26 132 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of ArtificialSequence Synthetic Construct 26 cctggaacag atgatcaggg aatggctcattcctttacat ggcctgaaaa cgccgctctt 60 ccactttcag agtcagcgaa aggcttgaggtgcatttgca cacgaggatt ctgccgtttg 120 ttataatgtc ac 132 27 132 DNAArtificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence SyntheticConstruct 27 cctggagcag atgatcaggg aatggctcat tcctttacac ggcctgaaaacgccgctctt 60 ccgctttcag agtcagcgag aggcttgagg tgcctttgca gacgaggagtttgccaactg 120 ttataaaggc gt 132 28 243 DNA Homo sapiens CDS (7)..(237)28 ccagcc atg agg acc ttc gcc ctc ctc acc gcc atg ctt ctc ctg gtg 48 MetArg Thr Phe Ala Leu Leu Thr Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val 1 5 10 gcc ctg cacgct cag gca gag gca cgt cag gca aga gct gat gaa gct 96 Ala Leu His AlaGln Ala Glu Ala Arg Gln Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala 15 20 25 30 gcc gcc cagcag cag cct gga gca gat gat cag gga atg gct cat tcc 144 Ala Ala Gln GlnGln Pro Gly Ala Asp Asp Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser 35 40 45 ttt aca tgg cctgaa aac gcc gct ctt cca ctt tca gag tca gcg aaa 192 Phe Thr Trp Pro GluAsn Ala Ala Leu Pro Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Lys 50 55 60 ggc ttg agg tgc atttgc aca cga gga ttc tgc cgt atg tta taa 237 Gly Leu Arg Cys Ile Cys ThrArg Gly Phe Cys Arg Met Leu 65 70 75 cgtcgc 243 29 76 PRT Homo sapiens29 Met Arg Thr Phe Ala Leu Leu Thr Ala Met Leu Leu Leu Val Ala Leu 1 510 15 His Ala Gln Ala Glu Ala Arg Gln Ala Arg Ala Asp Glu Ala Ala Ala 2025 30 Gln Gln Gln Pro Gly Ala Asp Asp Gln Gly Met Ala His Ser Phe Thr 3540 45 Trp Pro Glu Asn Ala Ala Leu Pro Leu Ser Glu Ser Ala Lys Gly Leu 5055 60 Arg Cys Ile Cys Thr Arg Gly Phe Cys Arg Met Leu 65 70 75 30 132DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence SyntheticConstruct 30 ggaccttgtc tactagtccc ttaccgagta aggaaatgta ccggacttttgcggcgagaa 60 ggtgaaagtc tcagtcgctt tccgaactcc acgtaaacgt gtgctcctaagacggcaaac 120 aatattacag tg 132 31 132 DNA Artificial SequenceDescription of Artificial Sequence Synthetic Construct 31 ggacctcgtctactagtccc ttaccgagta aggaaatgtg ccggactttt gcggcgagaa 60 ggcgaaagtctcagtcgctc tccgaactcc acggaaacgt ctgctcctca aacggttgac 120 aatatttccg ca132

What is claimed is:
 1. An isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding atheta defensin, or a functional fragment thereof, wherein said thetadefensin or functional fragment is a cationic, arginine-rich cyclicpeptide having each amino acid linked by a peptide bond and having oneor more intrachain crosslinks, said intrachain crosslink formed betweentwo amino acids, said theta defensin peptide or functional fragmenthaving antimicrobial activity.
 2. An isolated nucleic acid moleculeending a theta defensin peptide comprising the amino acid sequence:Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein: Xaa1 independently is Gly, Ile, Leu, Val or Ala; Xaa2 is Phe,Trp or Tyr; Xaa3 is Cys or Trp; Xaa4 independently is Arg or Lys; Xaa5is Cys or Trp; Xaa6 is Cys or Trp; Xaa7 is Thr or Ser; and Xaa8 is Argor Lys, or a nucleic acid molecule complementary thereto.
 3. The nucleicacid molecule of claim 2, wherein said theta defensin peptide has theamino acid sequence:Gly-Phe-Cys-Arg-Cys-Leu-Cys-Arg-Arg-Gly-Val-Cys-Arg-Cys-Ile-Cys-Thr-Arg(SEQ ID NO:1).
 4. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleicacid molecule comprising the RTD1a nucleotide sequence referenced as SEQID NO:17.
 5. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleic acidmolecule comprising the RTD1b nucleotide sequence referenced as SEQ IDNO:19.
 6. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleic acidmolecule comprising the RTD1a nucleotide sequence referenced as SEQ IDNO:13.
 7. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleic acidmolecule comprising the RTD1b nucleotide sequence referenced as SEQ IDNO:15.
 8. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleic acidmolecule consisting of the RTD1a nucleotide sequence referenced as SEQID NO:
 24. 9. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleic acidmolecule consisting of the RTD1b nucleotide sequence referenced as SEQID NO:
 25. 10. The nucleic acid molecule of claim 1, said nucleic acidmolecule comprising the human theta defensin nucleotide sequencereferenced as SEQ ID NO:28.
 11. A vector encoding a theta defensin, saidvector comprising an expression element operationally linked to anucleotide sequence encoding a theta defensin peptide, said nucleotidesequence comprising the nucleic acid molecule of any of claims 1 to 10.12. A method of expressing a theta defensin, comprising (a)administering the vector of claim 11 to a cell; and (b) expressing saidencoded theta defensin peptides, wherein said peptides form a thetadefensin.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein said vector encodes twotheta defensin peptides.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein a secondvector encoding a second theta defensin peptide is administered to saidcell.
 15. An isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding a theta defensinpeptide comprising the amino acid sequence:Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa9-Xaa4-Xaa10-Xaa1-Xaa11-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa12-Xaa4-Xaa13-Xaa1-Xaa14-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein: Xaa1 independently is an aliphatic amino acid; Xaa2 is anaromatic amino acid; Xaa4 independently is Arg or Lys; Xaa7 is Thr orSer; Xaa8 is Arg or Lys; Xaa9 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa10 is Glu,Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa11 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa12 is Glu, Asp, Lysor Ser; Xaa13 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa14 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser.16. An isolated nucleic acid molecule encoding a theta defensin peptidecomprising the amino acid sequence:Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein: Xaa1 independently is an aliphatic amino acid; Xaa2 is anaromatic amino acid; Xaa3 is Cys or Trp; Xaa4 independently is Arg orLys; Xaa5 is Cys or Trp; Xaa6 is Cys or Trp; Xaa7 is Thr or Ser; andXaa8 is Arg or Lys, said theta defensin having an intrachain crosslinkformed between two amino acids selected from the group consisting of:Xaa3 at position 3 and Xaa3 at position 16; Xaa5 at position 5 and Xaa5at position 14; and Xaa6 at position 7 and Xaa6 at position
 12. 17. Thenucleic acid molecule of claim 16 having the amino acid sequence:Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa3-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa6-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa1-Xaa3-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein: Xaa1 independently is Gly, le, Leu, Val or Ala; Xaa2 is Phe,Trp, or Tyr; Xaa3 is Cys or Trp; Xaa4 independently is Arg or Lys; Xaa5is Cys or Trp; Xaa6 is Cys or Trp; Xaa7 is Thr or Ser; and Xaa8 is Argor Lys, said theta defensin having an intrachain crosslink formedbetween two amino acids selected from the group consisting of: Xaa3 atposition 3 and Xaa3 at position 16; Xaa5 at position 5 and Xaa5 atposition 14; and Xaa6 at position 7 and Xaa6 at position
 12. 18. Anisolated nucleic acid encoding a theta defensin peptide having the aminoacid sequence:Xaa1-Xaa2-Xaa9-Xaa4-Xaa10-Xaa1-Xaa11-Xaa4-Xaa4-Xaa1-Xaa1-Xaa12-Xaa4-Xaa13-Xaa1-Xaa14-Xaa7-Xaa8,wherein: Xaa1 independently is an aliphatic amino acid: Xaa2 is anaromatic amino acid; Xaa4 independently is Arg or Lys; Xaa7 is Thr orSer; Xaa8 is Arg or Lys; Xaa9 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa10 is Glu,Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa11 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa12 is Glu, Asp, Lysor Ser; Xaa13 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser; Xaa14 is Glu, Asp, Lys or Ser,wherein an intrachain crosslink is formed between two amino acidsselected from the group consisting of: Xaa9 and Xaa14; Xaa10 and Xaa13;and Xaa11 and Xaa12.
 19. An isolated nucleic acid encoding a thetadefensin peptide comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 18,said peptide having antimicrobial activity.
 20. An isolated nucleic acidencoding a theta defensin peptide comprising the amino acid